Abbey, A., McAuslan, P., Ross, L., & Zawacki, T. (1999). Alcohol expectancies regarding sex, aggression, and sexual vulnerability: Reliability and validity assessment. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 13, 174-182.

This article reviews the findings of a study on 715 college students who completed the Alcohol Expectancies Regarding Sex, Aggression, and Sexual Vulnerability Questionnaire. The instrument contains questions on alcohol expectancies in four areas (aggression, sexual affect, sexual drive, and vulnerability to sexual coercion) for three groups (self, women, and men). Statistical analysis supported the hypothesis that participants' alcohol expectancies for other people corresponded with their gender role stereotypes. Participants also believed that they were less influenced by alcohol than other people were. The authors discuss the implications of their research for sexual assault prevention programs.

Topics: Alcohol; college; risk; vulnerability

Benson, D., Charlton, C., & Goodhart, F. (1992). Acquaintance rape on campus: A literature review. College Health, 40, 157-165.

This article provides an overview of several central aspects relevant to acquaintance or date rape on American college campuses. It addresses the definition of acquaintance rape, early research on the topic, the cultural context of rape, legal issues concerning acquaintance rape as a crime and as a campus disciplinary matter, adolescent attitudes and sexual socialization, the relationship between alcohol and sexual assault, characteristics of assailants, vulnerability factors among women, survivor responses, and institutional responses of colleges. The authors conclude by proposing several strategies that colleges can follow to increase awareness and prevention of acquaintance rape on campuses.

Topics: Alcohol; college; prevention; survivors; vulnerability

Budin, L. E., & Johnson, C. F. (1989). Sex abuse prevention programs: Offenders’ attitudes about their efficacy. Child Abuse and Neglect, 13, 77-87.

This study assessed sex abuse prevention education methods for children by drawing upon input from 72 convicted sex abusers at a correctional facility in Ohio. Perpetrators were surveyed concerning how they approached children, how they solicited children as victims, how they prevented children from reporting, and how they would prevent the sexual abuse of children. Results revealed that incestuous perpetrators used similar tactics as non-incestuous perpetrators to gain the trust of children. However, certain methods were used more frequently by incestuous perpetrators than non-incestuous perpetrators. For example, non-incestuous perpetrators were more likely to give their victims toys, to use the victim’s friend, and to acquire victims who had been previously victimized by the perpetrator’s friends. Overall, perpetrators tended to focus their tactics on children who were described as passive, troubled, lonely, and from broken homes. The perpetrators’ perceptions of the efficacy of sex abuse prevention methods were also assessed. The perpetrators in this study suggest that children should be taught to report abuse, to say “no” to assailants, to be educated about proper handling of their genitalia, and to refrain from getting into cars with strangers. While there are significant limitations to this type of study, input from abusers may provide useful information for strengthening child abuse prevention programs.

Topics: Perpetration; prevention; vulnerability

Finch, E., & Munro, V. E. (2005). Juror stereotypes and blame attribution in rape cases involving intoxicants: The findings of a pilot study. British Jounal of Criminology, 45, 25-38.

This study addresses the issue of drug-assisted rapes by presenting the results of a pilot study involving juror stereotypes and blame attributions. Foremost, the authors outline some of the difficulties in defining drug-assisted rape; particularly, the impact drugs such as Rohypnol and GHB have by inducing amnesiac effects and reducing the possibility of consent. Noteworthy is the very fact that the inability to provide consent lies at the core of what defines rape. However, the authors note also that the issue of consent is without legal specification – whether in its definition or in determining the absence or presence thereof. The pilot study involved two focus groups and a trial simulation whereby four themes influenced the participants’ decision-making process: victim’s responsibility, defendant’s intentions, the parity of the parties’ intoxication, and the victim’s response to intoxication. Participants’ attribution of blame and responsibility were impacted by misperceptions concerning the actual impact of such drugs, belief in rape myths, and consideration of the defendant’s motivation in administering intoxicants.

Topics: Legal responses; myths/stereotypes; vulnerability

 Heise, L., Ellsberg, M., & Gottemoeller, M. (1999). Ending violence against women. Population Reports, Series L, Number 11, 1-43.

This report provides an admirably thorough review of the various dimensions concerning violence against women across the globe. The authors begin by addressing the concept of gender-based violence, how health care providers can help, and what societal responses should entail in curbing the problem. The report discusses in detail the prevalence and ramifications of intimate partner abuse, sexual coercion, impact of violence on women’s reproductive health, threats to health and development, the role of health providers in recognizing and treating the effects of violence, and finally, an agenda for change. The report includes numerous charts presenting, for example, cross-cultural data on issues related to rates of approval of wife-beating and prevalence of forced first intercourse in various countries. The report also includes examples of posters used to educate women and increase awareness of the issues in different countries as well as several useful charts with instructions and guidelines for health care providers. This is an invaluable resource for anyone interested in understanding violence against women on a global level.

Topics: Community attitudes/responses; disclosure; effects; injury; male-female relations; marital rape; medical response; myths/stereotypes; perpetration; prevalence; prevention; racial/ethnic differences; risk; statistics; underserved populations; vulnerability

Hickman, S. E., & Muehlenhard, C. L. (1997). College women's fears and precautionary behaviors relating to acquaintance rape and stranger rape. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 527-547.

In the past, research on women's fear of rape has focused primarily on women's fears relating to stranger rape, even though acquaintance rapes are far more common. The authors administered questionnaire surveys to 139 undergraduate women concerning their fears, precautionary behaviors, and beliefs related to acquaintance and stranger rape. Respondents reported being more fearful of rape by strangers than by acquaintances, and reported engaging in more precautionary behaviors because of fear of stranger rape than of acquaintance rape. When asked to describe situations in which they feared rape, they more often described scenarios of stranger rape, even though they correctly estimated acquaintance rape to be more common. Level of fear was the best predictor of the presence of precautionary behaviors. A history of acquaintance rape had no effect on women's responses.

Topics: Avoidance/resistance; college; vulnerability

Koss, M. P., & Cleveland, H. H. (1997). Stepping on toes: Social roots of date rape lead to intractability and politicization. In M. D. Schwartz (Ed.), Researching sexual violence against women: Methodological and personal perspectives (pp. 4-21). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

This article discusses approaches to understanding rape and sexual aggression. The authors contend that rape-supportive environments encourage sexually aggressive men to act on their impulses and discourage women from identifying and reporting experiences of victimization. Coercive beliefs and aggressive behaviors are examined as part of our cultural understanding of sexuality. The authors address why this area of research is politicized and what this politicization means.

Topics: Male-female relations; risk; perpetration; vulnerability

Parks, K. A., & Miller, B. A. (1997). Bar victimization of women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 509-525.

This study provides a preliminary description of the types of violence experienced by women bar drinkers and the roles of exposure and impairment as risk factors for encountering bar-related aggression – an area of research that has been hitherto neglected. Data were collected from 52 women bar drinkers (mean age 31.9 years) through self-administered questionnaires and focus-group discussions about their lifestyles, alcohol and drug use, and patterns of bar drinking. Nearly half of the women (48.1%) had experienced physical violence (e.g., assault) and one-third (32.6%) had experienced either attempted or completed rape associated with drinking in a bar. The authors conclude that women who regularly drink in bars experience a substantial amount of physical and sexual aggression associated with these settings.

Topics: Alcohol; risk; vulnerability

Sochting, I., Fairbrother, N., & Koch, W. J. (2004). Sexual assault of women: Prevention efforts and risk factors. Violence Against Women, 10, 73-93.

This review article summarizes the research on the effectiveness of different types of rape prevention programs, including attitude change and self-defense programs. A review of the body of literature on risk factors for sexual assault is also presented. Strategies for improving rape prevention programs are highlighted and include identifying targets for behavioral change based on risk factors and training women in rape resistance strategies. Results suggested that attitude change was a less effective prevention approach.

Topics: Avoidance/resistance; college; evaluation; prevention; risk; vulnerability

Stermac, L., Del Bove, G., Addison, M. (2004). Stranger and acquaintance sexual assault of adult males. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 19, 901-915. [Posted December 2006.]

Key Points: Sexual assaults of males by strangers tend to occur outdoors and are more likely to involve weapons and multiple perpetrators than assaults perpetrated by acquaintances. Severity and types of injuries due to sexual assault are similar in men and women.

Abstract: In this descriptive study, researchers looked at the records of three groups of clients at a Canadian Sexual Assault Care Center: male victims of stranger assault (n=64); male victims of non-stranger assault (n=81); and female victims of non-stranger assault (n=106).

Male survivors from both groups were more likely to be living in shelters, institutions (such as transitional housing) or on the street. They were also significantly more likely to have a physical disability than female victims of non-stranger assault.

While acquaintance assaults of men and women usually took place in the assailant’s home (44.3% vs. 43.4%), male acquaintance assaults were significantly more likely to take place in an institution (10.1% vs 0%). Stranger assaults of men were more likely to take place outside, involve multiple perpetrators, and involve use of a weapon, although injuries were similar among the groups. All received similar levels of care at the hospital, although men were admitted more often than women.

The findings suggested that men who were homeless and disabled were at higher risk for sexual assault by strangers, and that safer housing options were needed.

Topics: Injury; male rape; vulnerability

Updated 08/01/07