Ahrens, C. E., & Campbell, R. (2000). Assisting rape victims as they recover from rape: The impact on friends. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 15, 959-986.

Providing the appropriate response to a survivor of rape can be an overwhelming challenge. Rape disclosure often occurs among friends and/or family but many supporters are as unprepared to help as the victim was unprepared for having to survive the rape in the first place. As such, helpers’ responses can vary from providing negative reactions to offering sincere emotional support. Previous research has demonstrated that negative reactions (e.g., blame, denial, rejection, critical judgments) can significantly impair a victim’s postrape functioning. In this article, a brief review of the range of affective and interpersonal responses is offered along with a discussion of victimization perspective theory. This is followed by an empirical study involving 60 friends of rape survivors. Results revealed three patterns of helping and friendship outcomes: positive responses and positive enhancement of the friendship, neutral responses with no alteration of the friendship, and negative responses (i.e., perceived distress and ineffectiveness) involving negative developments in the friendship. The authors conclude by presenting implications and applications of this information toward assisting rape survivors and their support systems.

Topics: Disclosure; effects; survivors

Arata, C. M., & Burkhart, B. R. (1998). Coping appraisals and adjustment to nonstranger sexual assault. Violence Against Women, 4, 224-239.

In this study, 813 female undergraduate psychology students filled out questionnaires regarding past coercive sexual experiences in order to assess the relationship between appraisals, coping, and adjustment of nonstranger sexual assault. Symptomatic victims of sexual assault were compared to asymptomatic victims. Participants who were currently symptomatic were more likely to engage in characterological self-blame and were more likely to use coping strategies such as emotional expressiveness/social support seeking and coping activity/cognitive restructuring. Victims of rape are more likely to use characterological self-blame than are victims of other forms of sexual assault. Overall, the study showed an impact of coping and attribution on a general measure of functioning.

Topics: College; effects; survivors

Bachman, R. (1998). The factors related to rape reporting behavior and arrest: New evidence from the National Crime Victimization Survey. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 25, 8-29.

This article draws upon data from the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS, 1992-94) to examine police-reporting behavior by survivors of rape and sexual assault and the probability of an arrest being made in response to a report. Bachman provides a brief overview of rape law reforms in America followed by an analysis of several contextual characteristics. These include victim-offender relationship, location of victimization, offender's use of a weapon, extent of injury sustained by the victim, and three variables pertaining to the demographics of the sample (i.e., victim's age, marital status at time of offense, and age). Dependent variables in the analysis addressed police-reporting behavior and arrest of offender subsequent to the crime. The analyses focused on lone-offender, male-perpetrated rapes, and sexual assaults against adult women. Results suggest that victims who sustain physical injuries (in addition to the rape or sexual assault) or women who are threatened by a weapon during the attack are more likely to report the offense to the police than are other types of victims. In addition, it was found that African American victims of rape were more likely to report the offense to the police. The probability of an arrest being made, however, does not seem to be related to any of the contextual characteristics in the study. This study is limited in that it did not examine reporting behavior of victimizations where multiple offenders were involved nor did it examine when the victim was a minor or when the victim was male. Bachman concludes by suggesting that the examination of other barriers affecting reporting behavior, in addition to those described above, is still necessary since less than one quarter of the rapes in this sample were ever reported to the police.

Topics: Disclosure; survivors

Barber, M., Jenkins, R., & Jones, C. (2000). A survivor's group for women who have a learning disability. British Journal of Developmental Disabilities, 46, 31-41.

The authors describe a women's group that was conducted for 6 women (aged 20–33 years) with learning disabilities and a history of sexual abuse/assault. The authors then review the format of the group sessions, the therapeutic process, as well as information learned from the evaluation of the impact of the group on variables including the women's self-esteem, psychological well-being, assertiveness, and overall satisfaction with the intervention. The initial outcome was mostly favorable; however, this effect was not maintained for each measure at a 3-month follow-up. The authors discuss possible reasons for the findings and make recommendations for future group work with this population.

Topics: Disabled; survivors; treatment

Benson, D., Charlton, C., & Goodhart, F. (1992). Acquaintance rape on campus: A literature review. College Health, 40, 157-165.

This article provides an overview of several central aspects relevant to acquaintance or date rape on American college campuses. It addresses the definition of acquaintance rape, early research on the topic, the cultural context of rape, legal issues concerning acquaintance rape as a crime and as a campus disciplinary matter, adolescent attitudes and sexual socialization, the relationship between alcohol and sexual assault, characteristics of assailants, vulnerability factors among women, survivor responses, and institutional responses of colleges. The authors conclude by proposing several strategies that colleges can follow to increase awareness and prevention of acquaintance rape on campuses.

Topics: Alcohol; college; prevention; survivors; vulnerability

Bletzer, K. V., & Koss, M. P. (2006). After-rape among three populations in the Southwest. Violence Against Women, 12, 5-29. [Posted January 2007.]

Key Points: While women’s experience of surviving rape is similar across cultural and ethnic backgrounds, differences in their descriptions of the event may guide primary and secondary intervention strategies.

Abstract: The way a person describes an experience can give insight to the meaning of the event in their life. This study included analysis of life narratives by 62 female sexual violence survivors from three ethnic/cultural groups of the Southwest: Mexican American, Native American (Southern Cheyenne), and  Anglo. All the women were low income, and the mean age of each group was about 35 years.

Most of the women knew the perpetrator. Women in all groups described their feelings after rape as anger, defilement, and degradation. Few women reported the rape to police or talked to a mental health worker. When describing their long-term strategy for dealing with the rape, Anglo women were more likely to discuss taking control or leaving the memory of the event behind them. Native American women talked more about forgetting the incident or blocking it out. Mexican American women were less likely to describe active efforts to return to a “normal” life and talked more about the continuing effects of the rape on their lives. All of the women described difficulty in interpersonal relationships and in trusting men.

The researchers recommended designing post-rape interventions that are sensitive to differences in sociocultural backgrounds, and educating community members to support survivors. 

Topics: Racial/ethnic differences; survivors

Brecklin, L. R., & Ullman, S. E. (2005). Self-defense or assertiveness training and women’s responses to sexual attacks. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20, 738-762.

In this study, the authors examine the impact self-defense training potentially has on women’s responses to sexual assault. The sample included 3,187 undergraduate females from 32 colleges who completed a self-report questionnaire (National Survey of Intergender Relationships). Students were asked about experiences pertaining to unwanted sexual contact, sexual coercion, attempted and/or completed rape, assault characteristics, their perception concerning their victimization experiences, and postassault experiences. Analyses compared women with preassault training to women without any reported self-defense or assertiveness training prior to their assault experiences. Findings revealed that students who had participated in training were more likely to be less scared and more angry during their assault than women who had not had any training. The former were also more likely to report success at stopping the offender. Interestingly, though, the students with preassault trainings were also more likely to undervalue the extent of their resistance. The authors postulate ways in which such findings may improve prevention programs designed to enhance women’s resistance strategies while also recognizing that the origin of sexual violence still rests with males.

Topics: Avoidance/resistance; prevention; survivors

Campbell, J. C., & Soeken, K. L. (1999). Forced sex and intimate partner violence: Effects on women's risk and women's health. Violence Against Women, 5, 1017-1035.

Authors examined the relationship between forced sex and women's self-esteem and health status – extending the latter concept beyond physical and emotional abuse sustained. A volunteer community sample of 159 battered women (mean age 31.6 years; 77% African American) completed interviews about forced sex by their partner (or ex-partner). Results indicate that 45.9% of the sample were sexually assaulted as well as physically abused. Other than ethnicity, there were no demographic differences between those who were forced into sex and those who were not. Additionally, there was no difference in history of child sexual abuse. However, women who were sexually assaulted reported higher scores on negative general health symptoms, gynecological symptoms, and risk factors for homicide victimization even when controlling for physical abuse and demographic variables. The authors also found that the number of sexual assaults (childhood, rape, and intimate partner) was significantly correlated with depression and body image.

Topics: Effects; survivors

Chang, B. H., Skinner, K. M., & Boehmer, U. (2001). Religion and mental health among women veterans with sexual assault experience. International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine, 31, 77-95.

This study examines the association of religiosity, mental health functioning, and depression among women who experienced sexual assault. Using a sample of women veterans, religion was measured as attendance of religious services and subjective religious beliefs. Results suggest that religion may have a buffering effect on health in response to traumatic life events.

Topics: Effects; faith based; survivors

Connop, V., & Petrak, J. (2004). The impact of sexual assault on heterosexual couples. Sexual & Relationship Therapy, 19, 29-38.

The impact of sexual assault upon the male partners of female sexual assault victims is an under-researched area. The purpose of this study was to examine how male partners react to their partner’s sexual assault and what happens to the couples’ interactions. Participants were recruited through a sexual assault clinic and through press advertisements. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 6 males whose previous or current partners had been sexually assaulted and with 3 females who had been sexually assaulted and had disclosed their assault to their partners. Interviews revealed that 8 of the 9 participants had a partner who had experienced acquaintance rape – or, in the case of the female participants, had been the victim of acquaintance rape. In analyzing the interviews, four themes were identified: (a) the male partner’s role in providing support, (b) communication, (c) anger and blame, and (d) the impact of the assault on the sexual relationship. Many of the male participants indicated that they felt they should put their partner’s needs first and felt exhausted by their role in supporting their partner. Men also revealed a common assumption relating to socio-cultural scripts concerning heterosexual relationships; namely, the idea that they ought to protect their women. Relationship disturbances and communication problems were also reported to have increased in the aftermath of the assault. While at times the men enunciated rape myths, they could not be categorized either as viewing the rape as a sexual act or as a violent act (as the prior research study had indicated). A final issue noted by participants was how the sexual assault increased their difficulty in performing and enjoying sexual activity. Suggested implications of the findings for service provision include the benefit of couple-based counseling and counseling to support male partners’ support needs and psychosexual issues.

Topics: Disclosure; effects; male-female relations; myths/stereotypes; survivors

Coxell, A. W., & King, M. B. (1996). Male victims of rape and sexual abuse. Sexual & Marital Therapy, 11, 297-308.

This article reviews the sexual assault of adult males. A number of myths concerning the survivors, perpetrators, and plausibility of such assaults are critically examined. Sexual assault prevalence data from 1,480 males is presented. The results from a study of coercion in gay relationships is also included. The problems that males reported after sexual assault are discussed. These problems include: PTSD, sexual problems, difficulties forming close relationships, mistrust of adult men, suicide attempts, confusion about sexual orientation, and various mood disorders. Sexual assault by females (which is comparatively rare) tends to leave men less traumatized than sexual assaults by men because these types of assaults are less likely to involve physical force and because same-sex sexual contact, which is traumatic in itself to heterosexual males, is not involved.

Topics: Effects; male rape; perpetration; survivors

Darves-Bornoz, J. M., Lepine, J. P., Choquet, M., Berger, C., Degiovanni, A., & Gaillard, P. (1998). Predictive factors of chronic post-traumatic stress disorder in rape victims. European Psychiatry, 13, 281-287.

This article addresses the need to identify empirical predictors of chronic PTSD among rape victims. The study involved 73 victims of sexual assault who were either self-referred or referred by the police to the Centre for Victims of Sexual Assault at the University Hospital in Tours, France. Participants were assessed by a psychiatrist at the onset of the study using structured interview schedules to measure psychological and behavioral attitudes as well as sexual abuse experiences. Analysis revealed that somatoform and dissociative disorders, agoraphobia, depressive and gender identity disorders, and alcohol abuse are good predictors of PTSD one year after a rape. Other good predictors of chronic PTSD, revealed by stepwise logistic regressions, were: specific characteristics of the rape (such as intrafamily rape, physical violence outside the rape, and added physical violence during the rape), early psychological and behavioral attitudes (such as low self-esteem, permanent feelings of emptiness, and running away), and early mental disorders (agoraphobia and depressive disorders). The strongest predictive model suggests that clinicians should pay particular attention to patients presenting with low self-esteem, feelings of emptiness, agoraphobia, and the experience of added physical violence during rape since these patients may be susceptible to chronic PTSD.

Topics: Effects;survivors

David, W., Simpson, T. & Cotton, A. (2006). Taking charge: A pilot curriculum of self-defense and personal safety training for female veterans with PTSD because of military sexual trauma. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21, 555-565. [Posted October 2006.]

Key Points: Participation in a self-defense/personal safety intervention reduced symptoms of PTSD and depression among female veterans who had experienced sexual assault and sexual trauma in the military.

Abstract: A group of twelve female veterans (average age 48.3 years) in treatment for PTSD at a VA hospital participated in this 12-week, 36-hour pilot treatment program. Each three-hour group session included one hour of psychoeducation and role-play; one hour of physical self-defense training with a male and a female instructor, and one hour of debriefing. Three female psychologists were present throughout each session. Data was collected from ten women: twice before the intervention, immediately after completion, and at three and six months after. Significant changes lasting over time included: being able to better identify risky vs. safe situations; less avoidance of social situations to avoid triggering memories; less hyperarousal; less depression; and increased self-efficacy. A strong bond developed among participants which may have helped all twelve complete the program.

This study was limited by a small sample size of self-selected participants who were carefully screened for psychological and physical stability. Further studies should be done to determine if equally positive results are found in other groups.

Topics: Military; survivors; treatment

Finlayson, T. J., Salzman L.E., Sheridan, D. J., & Taylor W. K. (1999). Estimating hospital charges associated with intimate violence. Violence Against Women, 5, 313-335.

Costs associated with treating intimate violence can be estimated by using data collected by hospital-based programs that identify and document such violence. The authors examine earlier methods used to estimate hospital charges associated with violence and describe their experiences using data collected by a hospital-based violence prevention program in Chicago, Illinois. The authors describe five basic steps for estimating hospital charges associated with treating intimate violence. The authors suggest that these steps, as well as awareness of the associated methodological differences, can guide researchers who examine hospital costs of intimate violence victims.

Topics: Statistics; survivors

Foa, E. B., Dancu, C. V., Hembree, E. A., Jaycox, L. H., Meadows, E. A., & Street, G. P. (1999). A comparison of exposure therapy, stress inoculation training, and their combination for reducing posttraumatic stress disorder in female assault victims. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67, 194-200.

This study examines the effects of three different treatments for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among 96 female assault victims. Four treatment conditions were assessed at pretreatment and posttreatment stages as well as 3-, 6-, and 12-month follow-ups. The four conditions in the study were: (1) prolonged exposure (PE), stress inoculation (SIT), combined treatment (PE-SIT), and a waitlist control group (WL). The results indicate that PE, SIT, and PE-SIT contributed to significant reductions in PTSD among sexual and nonsexual assault victims in the study. These three treatments also reduced anxiety symptoms and depression among subjects who completed the study. However, PE-SIT did not cause a greater reduction in PTSD, as predicted at the onset of the study. Instead, PE had a stronger effect on posttreatment anxiety and global social adjustment whereas SIT and PE-SIT were not significantly different from each other on any of the outcome measures.

Topics: Effects; survivors

Frazier, P. A., & Schauben, L. J. (1994). Causal attributions and recovery from rape and other stressful life events. Journal of Social & Clinical Psychology, 13, 1-14.

The authors examined the relationship between causal attributions and recovery among rape survivors. Participants in the study were 282 female undergraduates (including 59 survivors of rape). They completed measures including the Sexual Experiences Survey, the Brief Symptom Inventory, and the McPearl Belief Scale. Results indicated that frequent rape-related ruminations as well as behavioral and characterological self-blame were associated with more complicated recovery trajectories for survivors of rape. The belief that future rapes were less likely to occur was found to be related to improved recovery.

Topics: Survivors

Frazier, P., Tashiro, T., Berman, M., Steger, M., & Long, J. (2004). Correlates of levels and patterns of positive life changes following sexual assault. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72, 19-30.

Research suggests that factors such as personal resources, environmental resources, coping strategies, and event appraisals affect the development of positive live changes following a traumatic event. Building on previous work, this study considered features associated with early reporting of positive life change and differential self-report patterns of positive life change over time. The study measured prior victimization and survivor ethnicity (aspects of personal resources); social support (an aspect of environmental resources); approach, avoidant, and religious coping (aspects of coping strategies); and behavioral self-blame, control over the recovery process, and taking precautions to prevent future assaults (aspects of event appraisals). The authors hypothesized that social support, approach coping, perceived control over the recovery process, taking precautions, and being African American would be associated with a greater degree of early positive life change. It was hypothesized that these same variables would also predict a more rapid increase in positive life change over time. Participants (N = 171) were recruited from female sexual assault survivors assisted at one of seven emergency rooms in the Minneapolis/St. Paul area. Respondents completed questionnaires postassault at 2 weeks, 2 months, 6 months, and 12 months. Results provided partial support for the authors’ hypotheses. Participants who reported higher initial levels of social support, approach coping, religious coping, and perceived control over the recovery process also reported higher initial levels of positive life change. Participants who reported increases over time in social support, approach coping, religious coping, perceived control over the recovery process, and taking precautions also reported increases in positive life changes over time. Limitations include a limited list of positive change variables as well as a lack of generalizability to male survivors and non-ER service consumers. Further research is needed to examine the contribution of ethnic differences, religious coping, and various control appraisals.

Topics: Effects; survivors; treatment

Mahoney, P. (1999). High rape chronicity and low rates of help-seeking among wife rape survivors in a nonclinical sample: Implications for research and practice. Violence Against Women, 5, 993-1016.

The authors analyzed sexual assault chronicity and help-seeking behaviors among 201 survivors (aged 18+ years) of marital (N = 37), acquaintance (N = 109), and stranger sexual assault (N = 55) by utilizing National Crime Victimization Survey data. They found that marital sexual assault survivors were significantly more likely than acquaintance and stranger survivors to experience multiple assaults, with many marital survivors experiencing more than 10 assaults in a 6-month period. The marital group was also less likely to seek medical, police, or agency help. The authors conclude by discussing the implications for research and practice generated by these data.

Topics: Marital rape; survivors; treatment

Merrill, L. L., Newell, C. E., Thomsen, C. J., Gold, S. R., Milner, J. S., Koss, M. P., et al. (1999). Childhood abuse and sexual revictimization in a female Navy recruit sample. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 12, 211-225.

The authors surveyed 1,887 female Navy recruits in order to examine the effects of childhood abuse on adult rape. A total of 35% of recruits had been raped and 57% had experienced childhood physical abuse (CPA) and/or childhood sexual abuse (CSA). Controlling for CPA, rape was significantly (4.8 times) more likely among women who had experienced CSA than among women who had not. In contrast, CPA (controlling for CSA) was unrelated to likelihood of adult rape. The authors included alcohol problems and number of sex partners as mediators in their models. Although both variables predicted rape, their effects were independent of the effects of CSA. Finally, despite ethnic group differences in the prevalence of victimization, the predictors of rape did not differ significantly across ethnic groups.

Topics: Military; prevalence; risk; survivors

Resnick, H., Monnier, J., Seals, B., Holmes, M., Nayak, M., Walsh, J., et al. (2002). Rape-related HIV risk concerns among recent rape victims. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 17, 746-759.

This article assesses the degree of fear and concern over contracting HIV during and after a rape assault. The study was conducted from July 1994 to September 1996. During this time researchers recruited 62 participants (ages 18 to 48 years) from postrape medical clinics. The initial interview was completed an average of 37 days after the incident and participants were paid $30 for their time and cooperation. Results of the study showed that 69.4% of those interviewed were raped by someone they did not know, 71% reported instances of verbal threats, and 82.3% feared being killed or injured during the attack. The study also revealed that 91.9% of those raped included vaginal penetration, 21.3% included oral penetration, and 9.8% included anal penetration. When participants were questioned about their fear of HIV, 69% reported being fearful during the rape that the assailant might have HIV and 92% were concerned about contracting the disease after the rape occurred. The most common reason for their concern (75.4%) over contracting HIV was that the assailant may have raped others. In addition, 64.9% reported that the assailant was a stranger. The results of this study and many others similar to it have shown us that women who are raped by a stranger are more likely to report concern about HIV than women who were raped by someone familiar to them. Of these victims, 82% reported interest in receiving more information about HIV during their postrape exam.

Topics: Effects; medical response; survivors

Saunders, B. E., Kilpatrick, D. G., Hanson, R. F., Resnick, H. S., & Walker, M. E. (1999). Prevalence, case characteristics, and long-term psychological correlates of child rape among women: A national survey. Child Maltreatment: Journal of the American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children, 4, 187-200.

A national probability sample of 4,008 adult women (aged 18–69+ years) was screened by phone for a history of completed rape in childhood using the Incident Classification Interview (Kilpatrick et al., 1989). Characteristics of child rape incidents were also assessed. Respondents were evaluated for a history of major depressive episode, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and substance use problems. This study endeavored to: (1) determine the prevalence of a history of completed rape in childhood among adult women in the United States; (2) collect incident-characteristic data about child rapes to develop a national profile of these assaults; and (3) examine the increased risk, if any, that being the victim of at least one child rape presents to women for developing PTSD, major depression, and substance use problems. Results showed that childhood rape dramatically increases risk for the development of psychological problems. The article concludes with a discussion of the implications of these results for prevention, intervention, and future research.

Topics: Effects; prevalence; prevention; risk; survivors

Schultz, J., Bell, K., Naugle, A., Polusny, M. (2006). Child sexual abuse and adulthood sexual assault among military veteran and civilian women. Military Medicine, 171, 723-728. [Posted October 2006.]

Key Points: Female veterans were more likely to report having been sexually assaulted as an adult than civilian women. Among those who were sexually abused as children (under age 14), veteran women were more likely to have been abused by a parental figure. 

Abstract: Both veteran women (N=142) and non-veteran women (N=81) from community settings completed questionnaires about their experiences of child sexual abuse, adult sexual victimization, and adult sexual assault. More than twice as many veteran women (48.9%) reported adult sexual assault than community women (21.5%). Veteran women and community women reported similar levels of child sexual abuse (48.6% and 43.2% respectively), but veteran women were much more likely to have been sexually abused by a parental figure (91.9% vs. 10%). The authors recommend screening women in the military to assist those who may have been sexually traumatized, and development of a sexual assault prevention program for all women entering the military.

Because women with a history of sexual violence may have been more likely to complete the questionnaire, rates of reported sexual violence may be higher than in a general population.

Topics: Military; survivors

Scott, C. S., Lefley, H. P., & Hicks, D. (1993). Potential risk factors for rape in three ethnic groups. Community Mental Health Journal, 29, 133-141.

The authors discuss the frequency of risk factors detected in a study of sexual assault among African American, Hispanic, and non-Hispanic White women during treatment at a major rape treatment center. A total of 881 victims were screened: 449 were negative for observable risk factors while the remaining 432 were positive for risk factors. These risk factors included: previous history of rape or incest, mental disability, tourist or visitor status, and homelessness. Results suggest that ethnic groups vary significantly in these categories. It is suggested that economic and cultural variables may affect rape risk factors and should be taken into account when planning rape prevention programs.

Topics: Prevention; racial/ethnic differences; risk; survivors

Short, L. M., McMahon, P. M., Chervin, D. D., Shelley, G. A., Lezin, N., Sloop, K. S., et al. (2000). Survivors' identification of protective factors and early warning signs for intimate partner violence. Violence Against Women, 6, 272-285.

This study proposed hypotheses concerning factors that may place women at risk for an abusive relationship, the potential early warning signs for physical partner violence, and the potential protective factors for cessation of violence once it has begun. Questions addressed women in violent sexual relationships: reasons women remain in abusive relationships, factors that may end the violence, barriers, potential early warning signs, resources, racial differences, and location differences. Urban and rural African American and White women (N = 168) in five US regions were recruited for 22 focus groups. Participants were between the ages of 18–50 years old, had been exposed to physical violence in intimate relationships, and were free of violence for at least 6 months at the time of the study. Similarities were found among all groups in their experiences of intimate partner violence. Furthermore, women in the focus groups stated that once violence began within their relationships, it escalated over time. The authors suggest implications for intervention. For example, the information gleaned from the participants may be informative to institutions that are active in removing women from violent relationships. Particularly, three areas of prevention implications were discussed. These include: the need for awareness in identifying early warning signs of intimate partner violence, the significance of family abuse history, and the need to educate adolescents – especially young girls – prior to the development of any intimate relationships.

Topics: Male-female relations; prevention; racial/ethnic differences; risk; survivors

Walker, J., Archer, J., & Davies, M. (2005). Effects of rape on men: A descriptive analysis. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 34, 69-80. [Posted December 2006.]

Key Points: Male victims of rape tend to react in an emotionally “controlled” way (calm, composed or subdued) immediately after the event. Long-term effects of sexual assault on men include depression, anger, anxiety, and emotional distancing from others.

Abstract: To describe the experiences of male rape victims who were not in a clinical setting, men who had been anally raped were recruited to participate in a mail-in survey. Forty men provided details of the assault, their immediate reactions, and the long-term effects. Seventy percent of the men were between the ages of 16-25 when the incident occurred. Only 10% of the rapes were committed by strangers.

Most men (87%) felt frozen fear, helplessness, or submission during the attack, although some (27%) were able to fight back at least somewhat. The majority of men reported that feeling helpless and out of control was worse than the sexual aspects of the assault. Almost all of the men reported long-term depression as a consequence of the assault, and most experienced long-term confusion about their sexual identity.

Recommendations included providing male victims the same support services offered to women, and more community education and outreach to increase awareness of the prevalence and impact of male rape.

Topics: Effects; male rape; survivors

Wyatt, G. E. (1992). The sociocultural context of African American and White American women's rape. Journal of Social Issues, 48, 77-91.

This article examines cultural and ethnic factors affecting women's reactions and adjustments to sexual assault. Fifty-five African American and White American women (aged 18–36 years), reporting 146 incidents of attempted and completed rapes, were interviewed. There were no significant ethnic differences in the prevalence of rape. African Americans in this sample were less likely to disclose sexual assault. Women in both groups experienced lasting psychological effects, including emotional distress connected to the abuse, chronic depression, mistrust of people, men in particular, and specific fears.

Topics: Effects; racial/ethnic differences; prevalence; survivors

Updated 08/01/07