Abrams, K. M., & Robinson, G. E. (1998). Stalking: Part I: An overview of the problem. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 43, 473-476.

This paper presents the results from the first of a two-part review on stalking. It outlines the behaviors involved, motivation of offenders, and mental health consequences for the victim. Results of an extensive literature search suggest that as many as 1 in 20 women will be stalked during her lifetime. Most victims are female while most offenders are male. Stalking behaviors range from secretive surveillance to threatening aggressive or violent acts. The majority of stalking occurrences occur in the context of failed intimate relationships. Stalkers may also exhibit erotomania or obsessional love while victims often experience anxiety, depression, guilt, helplessness, and PTSD.

Topics: Effects; stalking

Abrams, K. M., & Robinson, G. E. (1998). Stalking: Part II: Victims' problems with the legal system and therapeutic considerations. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 43, 477-481.

This paper presents the results from the second of a two-part review on stalking. It focuses the therapeutic tasks for victims and therapists and on victim difficulty with the legal system. Results of an extensive literature search suggest that victims experience a number of emotional consequences from being stalked. Additional stressors result from the legal system's lack of response. The authors state that treatment of victims must be handled in a comprehensive manner, with attention to education and psychotherapy.

Topics: Effects; legal responses; stalking; treatment

Basile, K. C., Swahn, M. H., Chen, J., & Saltzman, L. E. (2006). Stalking in the United States: Recent national prevalence estimates. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 31, 172-175. [Posted April 2007.]

Key Points: Stalking affects 7% of women and 2% of men in the United States at some point in their lives.

Abstract: Researchers analyzed data from the second national Injury Control and Risk Survey (ICARIS-2; N=9684). Respondents were considered victims of stalking if they had been followed and described the experience as “somewhat dangerous” or “life-threatening.” Based on this definition, an estimated 7 million women and 2 million men in the United States have been stalked.

Significant factors associated with having been stalked included being female, white, not married or living as a couple, being employed, and being less than 55 years old.

The authors recommended research to develop prevention interventions that can be used jointly by criminal justice and public health to reduce the prevalence of stalking and provide services to victims.

Limitations of the study included lack of information on the relationship of the stalker to the victim. Description of stalking was limited to two questions, and stalking tactics used were not assessed.

Topics: Prevalence; stalking

Fisher, B. S., Cullen, F. T., & Turner, M. G. (2002). Being pursued: Stalking victimization in a national study of college women. Criminology & Public Policy, 1, 257-308.

In a review of research on the victimization of women, the authors state that stalking has received little attention despite passage of extensive state and federal anti-stalking laws in the last 12 years. This study fills the research gap on stalking among college women as an at-risk population. The authors conducted a telephone survey drawing upon a nationally representative sample of women (N = 4,446) attending two and four year colleges and universities. Detailed questions were asked regarding stalking victimization (i.e., form, duration, intensity, location, injuries, reactions, and reporting) and victim-offender relationship. As a theoretical basis, the authors used lifestyle routine activity theory, which suggests that four particular lifestyles or routines (i.e., proximity to motivated offenders, exposure to crime, target attractiveness, and lack of guardianship) may put individuals at greater risk of victimization than those who do not engage in such activities or lifestyles. The relationship of demographic and lifestyle variables to stalking victimization was then examined within a multivariate statistical model. Results indicated that 13.1% of college women had been stalked once since the academic year began, 12.7% had been stalked twice, and 2.3% had been stalked three or more times. The median duration for a stalking incident was two months with 41% experiencing pursuit behaviors 2 to 6 times/week and another 13.3% experiencing them daily. Four in five victims knew their stalker; namely, 42.9% were current boyfriends or ex-boyfriends, 29% were classmates, and 10.4% were acquaintances. Substantial support was found for the routine activity theory. Propensity to be at places with alcohol, being in a relationship or dating, living alone, undergraduate status, higher SES class, prior sexual victimization, and being Non-Hispanic/Latina, Native American, or "Other," were significantly associated with stalking victimization. Given the high prevalence of stalking, the authors suggested college administrations should take a proactive approach to protecting female students.

Topics: College; risk; stalking

McFarlane, J., Willson, P., Lemmey, D., & Malecha, A. (2000). Women filing assault charges on an intimate partner: Criminal justice outcome and future violence experienced. Violence Against Women, 6, 396-408.

The authors interviewed 90 women (aged 19–59 years) with 6-month follow-up. In order to describe the criminal justice outcomes and violence experienced once women file assault charges against an intimate partner, questionnaires were administered at the time of filing charges, as well as at 3- and 6-month post-filing. The questionnaires measured threats of violence, physical assault, stalking, and danger. Results revealed that 48% of the women had insufficient evidence for charges. Of those making charges, 11% dropped charges. Furthermore, 37% of the perpetrators were arrested and 4% of perpetrators remained fugitives. With the exception of danger at 3 months, levels of violence did not differ by charges accepted or perpetrator arrested at 3 and 6 months. The study indicated that for this cohort of 90 women, filing assault charges against an intimate partner was a powerful deterrent to future violence, whether or not the charges were accepted or the offender was arrested.

Topics: Legal responses; stalking

Mullen, P. E., Pathe, M., Purcell, R., & Stuart, G. W. (1999). Study of stalkers. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 1244-1249.

The authors described behaviors, motivations, and psychopathology of 145 stalkers who were referred to a forensic psychiatric center for treatment. The majority of the stalkers were men (79%). Many stalkers were unemployed (39%) and 52% had never been in an intimate relationship. Victims included ex-partners (30%), professional or work contacts (34%), and strangers (14%). Five types of stalkers are described: rejected, intimacy-seeking, incompetent, resentful, and predatory. Delusional disorders were common (30%), especially among intimacy-seeking stalkers, although those with personality disorders predominate among rejected stalkers. The duration of stalking behaviors ranged from 4 weeks to 20 years with the longest duration found among rejected and intimacy-seeking stalkers. Of the stalkers, 63% made threats and 36% were assaultive. Threats and property damage tended to be more frequent with resentful stalkers while rejected and predatory stalkers committed more assaults.

Topics: Perpetration; stalking

Mustaine, E. E., & Tewksbury, R. (1999). A routine activity theory explanation for women's stalking victimizations. Violence Against Women, 5, 43-62.

This article presents a routine activity theory model for predicting stalking victimization likelihood for women. Surveys administered to 861 university women in nine institutions were examined. Using routine activity theory, the model highlights lifestyle behaviors and interactions as predictors of stalking victimization. While routine activity theory typically highlights the role of demographics and status as predictors of victimization, this analysis emphasizes the role of women's social interactions and substance use in victimization risk. Significant predictors of victimization likelihood include substance use variables, activities in public settings, and residence off campus.

Topics: College; risk; stalking; theory

Palarea, R. E., Zona, M. A., Lane, J. C., & Langhinrichsen-Rohling, J. (1999). The dangerous nature of intimate relationship stalking: Threats, violence, and associated risk factors. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 17, 269-283.

The authors compared 135 intimate and 88 non-intimate stalking cases managed by the Los Angeles Police Department's Threat Management Unit. Results indicate a significant relationship between the stalkers' intimate status and violence committed toward persons and property. The relationship was positively influenced by the suspect's proximity to the victim and threats toward the victim and property but was not influenced by suspect's criminal, psychiatric, and domestic violence history. Overall, intimate relationship stalkers used more dangerous stalking behaviors than non-intimate relationship stalkers. Risk factors for assessing dangerousness of stalkers are also discussed.

Topics: Risk; stalking

Pathe, M., & Mullen, P. E. (1997). The impact of stalkers on their victims. British Journal of Psychiatry, 170, 12-17.

This article examines the findings of a study which questioned 100 victims of stalking regarding their psychological, social, and interpersonal functioning as well as their level of risk for physical and sexual assault. Most victims experienced multiple forms of harassment including: being followed, repeatedly approached, and harassed either by mail or phone. Victims were stalked from 1 month to 20 years. Of those reporting stalking, 58 were threatened and 34 experienced physical or sexual assault. Most victims (n = 94) made major changes in their work and social lives, including changing or ceasing employment (53%) and moving back home (39%). Of the stalking victims, 83% reported increased anxiety, 55% experienced intrusive flashbacks, 37% met criteria for PTSD, and 24% acknowledged suicidal ideation. Respondents also reported appetite disturbances, depressed mood, and nightmares. Results indicate that persistent stalking results in social and psychological harm to victims. The authors also discuss the inadequacy of medical and legal response systems.

Topics: Effects; harassment; stalking

Spitzberg, B. H. & Cupach, W. R. (2007). The state of the art of stalking: Taking stock of the emerging literature. Aggression & Violent Behavior, 12, 64-86. [Posted April 2007.]

Key Points: The article provides a thorough overview and explanation of issues related to stalking based on the current published literature.

Abstract: This meta-analysis summarizes the results of 175 studies of stalking. In addition to looking at variations in prevalence between studies, the authors considered the definitions of stalking and described the closely-related set of behaviors termed “obsessive relational intrusion.” The authors created systematic typologies of types of stalkers, stalkers’ motivations, and types of stalking behaviors. Victims’ coping responses and the effects of stalking are also categorized. The majority of stalking victims are women. Because the majority of victims (79%) were acquainted with the stalker, and because half of all stalking was related to romantic relationships, the authors recommended looking at most stalking not only as criminal behavior or psychopathology, but as a type of “relationship terrorism” similar to other types of domestic violence.

Topics: Effects; perpetration; prevalence; stalking

Tjaden, P., & Thoennes, N. (2000b). Full report of the prevalence, incidence, and consequences of violence against women: Findings from the National Violence Against Women Survey (NCJ 183781). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice.

This report presents findings from the NVAW Survey on the prevalence and incidence of rape, physical assault, and stalking; the rate of injury among rape and physical assault victims; and injured victims' use of medical services. Among the many findings the authors indicate that: (1) 17.6% of all women surveyed said they had survived a completed or attempted rape at some time in their life, 54% of these women were under 18 when they were first raped. (2) 2.2% of men and 8.1% of women reported being stalked at some time in their life. (3) American Indian/Alaska Native women were significantly more likely than African American women, White women, or mixed-race women to report being raped. (4) Those women who reported they were raped prior to 18 years of age were twice as likely to report another rape as an adult. (5) Those women who reported that they were stalked prior to 18 were seven times more likely to indicate that they were stalked as an adult. (6) Women experience more intimate partner violence than men do. (7) 64.0 % of women vs. 16.2 % of men experience intimate partner violence (e.g., rape, physical assault, and/or stalking). (8) Women (31.5%) are much more likely than men (16.1%) to be injured during an assault. (9) When the perpetrator is a current or former intimate partner, the risk of injury to a woman increases. The authors discuss the findings in terms of their importance to intervention planners, policymakers, and legislators, as well as the criminal justice and public health communities. (*ADHS funded agencies can request a copy of this report by contacting the SVPEP office. The report can also be obtained directly from publications section of the National Institute of Justice website: http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/.)

Topics: Prevalence; racial/ethnic differences; stalking

Updated 08/01/07