Abbey, A., McAuslan, P., Ross, L., & Zawacki, T. (1999). Alcohol expectancies regarding sex, aggression, and sexual vulnerability: Reliability and validity assessment. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 13, 174-182.

This article reviews the findings of a study on 715 college students who completed the Alcohol Expectancies Regarding Sex, Aggression, and Sexual Vulnerability Questionnaire. The instrument contains questions on alcohol expectancies in four areas (aggression, sexual affect, sexual drive, and vulnerability to sexual coercion) for three groups (self, women, and men). Statistical analysis supported the hypothesis that participants' alcohol expectancies for other people corresponded with their gender role stereotypes. Participants also believed that they were less influenced by alcohol than other people were. The authors discuss the implications of their research for sexual assault prevention programs.

Topics: Alcohol; college; risk; vulnerability

Abbey, A., Zawacki, T., & Buck, P. (2001). Alcohol and sexual assault. Alcohol Research & Health, 25, 43-51.

This article provides an overview of some of the key issues involved in the multifaceted relationship between alcohol and sexual assault. The authors begin by citing prevalence estimates of sexual assault and alcohol-involved sexual assault. This is followed by a comparison of characteristics that are common to nonalcohol-involved and/or alcohol-involved sexual assaults. Issues involved in studying the relationship between alcohol and sexual assault are also addressed. For example, the two most common approaches to examining the role of alcohol in sexual assault involve either surveys of victims and perpetrators or studies within a laboratory setting. Additional issues examined in this article include the distal and proximal factors in the pathways between alcohol consumption and sexual assault as well as the roles that personality, attitudes, and experiences of perpetrators and victims may play. The significance of situational factors are also reviewed. The authors discuss male-female interactions within different settings, the impact alcohol consumption may have in various settings, and the importance of male-female communication, cues, and the (mis)perceptions thereof. As such, previous research on alcohol and aggressive and sexual behavior are also reviewed. Lastly, important questions for future research on the dynamics of alcohol and sexual assault are presented.

Topics: Alcohol; male-female relations; prevalence; risk

Basile, K. C., Black, M. C., Simon, T. R., Arias, I., Brener, N. D., & Saltzman, L. E. (2006). The association between self-reported lifetime history of forced sexual intercourse and recent health-risk behaviors: Findings from the 2003 National Youth Risk Behavior Survey. Journal of Adolescent Health, 39, 752.e1-752.e7. [Posted January 2007.]

Key Points: In a nationally representative sample of 13,080 high school students, 1 in 8 girls and 1 in 16 boys reported a history of forced sexual intercourse. Female and male victims were more likely to also have experienced recent dating violence and engage in health risk behaviors compared to non-victims.

Abstract: This study used data from the 2003 Youth Risk Behavior Survey. Students provided information on a range of health risk behaviors.  Both female and male victims of forced sex were more likely than non-victims to have been physically abused by a dating partner and to have considered or attempted suicide in the previous 12 months. Female and male victims were more likely to have engaged in recent unhealthy eating behaviors and substance abuse.  Because the survey asked about only one type of sexual violence (forced intercourse), it is likely that the rates of sexual victimization were higher than reported in the study. The researchers recommend increasing both primary and secondary prevention efforts to reduce the harm of sexual violence.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; prevalence; risk

Bergman, L. (1992). Dating violence among high school students. Social Work, 37, 21-27.

This study estimates the proportion of high school students who have experienced physical, sexual, or severe (sexual and physical) violence in dating relationships. This study also determined how gender, age, grade point average, dating frequency, age at which dating began, and number of dating partners were correlated with high school dating violence. Students from three Midwestern high schools participated in the study. One in four females in the study reported experiencing severe violence. The majority of victims did not report the violence. Number of dating partners was the most significant indicator of violence, with grade point average and dating frequency being the next highest predictors.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; prevalence; risk

Boswell, A. A., & Spade, J. Z. (1996). Fraternities and collegiate rape culture: Why are some fraternities more dangerous places for women? Gender & Society, 10, 133-147.

This article examines social interactions at college fraternities identified as high or low for rape risk, as well as two local bars. Gender relations, the treatment of women, and attitudes toward rape are discussed. The authors found that women not known to fraternity members were at highest risk of rape. High-risk social settings were characterized by high alcohol consumption, loud music, little conversation/interaction among men and women, routine degradation of women, and more full participation in the "hook-up scene," leading to the probability of women becoming faceless victims. The authors' findings suggest that an environment more conducive to conversation can promote positive interactions between men and women. They suggest that in order to eliminate campus rape culture, student leaders and administrators must examine the situations in which women and men meet and restructure these settings to provide opportunities for respectful interaction.

Topics: Athletes/fraternities; male-female relations; risk

Buddie, A., & Testa, M. (2005). Rates and predictors of sexual aggression among students and nonstudents. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20, 713-724.

This study focused on determining to what extent the college environment and college living arrangements of female students may impact their risk of experiencing sexual victimization. Measures addressed living arrangements, sexual aggression, predictors of sexual aggression (i.e., alcohol consumption, drug use, and number of sexual partners in the last year), and demographic information (e.g., household income and education level). Contrary to the expectation that college students are at higher risk of sexual aggression, analyses showed that women living away from their parents were more at risk, whether student or nonstudent. Additionally, alcohol consumption and multiple sex partners during the last year were significantly associated with rape and/or attempted rape during the past year. The authors highlight the need for prevention programs to recognize that college has been overly emphasized as a risky environment and that, instead, research should focus on the risky behaviors of students and nonstudents alike.

Topics: Alcohol; college; risk

Corbin, W., Bernat, J., Calhoun, K., McNair, L., & Seals, K. (2001). The role of alcohol expectancies and alcohol consumption among sexually victimized and nonvictimized college women. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 16, 297-311.

Research has revealed that college women are three times more likely than other groups of similar aged women to be victims of sexual assault. Much research has been done on the factors contributing to sexual assault perpetration and victimization. This study examines the role of alcohol expectancies, alcohol consumption, sexual assertiveness, and the number of consensual sexual partners in sexual assault victimization. The participants in this study were 238 female undergraduate students who were divided into three groups according to their personal experiences with sexual assault victimization: nonvictimized, moderately victimized, and severely victimized. Results showed that severely victimized women had more consensual sexual partners, less assertive behavior toward unwanted sexual advances, greater alcohol consumption, and more positive alcohol expectancies than those women in the nonvictimization group. Results also revealed that women who consume alcohol and have high positive expectancies as a result of alcohol consumption may face an elevated risk for sexual assault victimization. As such, this study identifies an important link between alcohol consumption and sexual assault victimization. Additional research should incorporate the role of risk perception in order to fully understand the link between alcohol expectancies and sexual behavior.

Topics: Alcohol; college; risk

Dean, K. E., & Malamuth, N. M. (1997). Characteristics of men who aggress sexually and of men who imagine aggressing: Risk and moderating variables. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 72, 449-455.

This study used 323 male participants from an introductory psychology course who filled out a questionnaire regarding sexual aggression and self-portrayal in order to determine risk factor characteristics. The findings show that the extent to which risk factors translate into actual sexual aggression depends on the magnitude to which the man is self-centered versus caring about others’ feelings. When a man is at high risk of being sexually aggressive, if he is self-centered, then he is more likely to be sexually aggressive than when he is sensitive to others’ feelings. It was also found that the nurturant group actually had greater fantasized sexual aggression than the self-centered group had. The implications of therapeutic intervention are also discussed.

Topics: Perpetration; risk

DeKeseredy, W. S., Rogness, M., & Schwartz, M. D. (2004). Separation/divorce sexual assault: The current state of social scientific knowledge. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 9, 675-691.

This article reviews some of the central concerns pertaining to women’s increased risk of not only lethal or nonlethal physical abuse, but their increased risk of sexual assault as well, during separation or divorce from cohabitation/marriage with an abusive male partner. Existing research on separation/divorce sexual assault is discussed covering definitions, prevalence rates and risk factors, and theoretical contributions of the contemporary research along with proposed recommendations concerning potential research on this topic. For example, the authors contend that multiple measures of sexual assault should be incorporated into any methodology examining separation/divorce sexual assault. Likewise, the role that societal patriarchy and gender inequality play in exacerbating “male proprietariness” (p. 686) may be one of the key factors that make exiting an abusive relationship even more challenging. Indeed, while support and intervention for victims of marital rape are woefully lacking, assistance to victims of separation/divorce sexual assault are presumed to be even less available.

Topics: Marital rape; prevalence; risk

Douglas, K., Collins, J., Warren, C., Kann, L., Gold, R., Clayton, S, Ross, J., & Kolbe, L. (1997). Results from the 1995 National College Health Risk Behavior Survey. College Health, 46, 55-66.

The National College Health Risk Behavior Survey used a nationally representative sample of undergraduate college students aged 18 years or older to answer a questionnaire on their health risk behaviors. The results of this study indicate that college students engage in behaviors that put them at greater risk for adverse health consequences. Tobacco use, alcohol and other drug use, sexual behaviors, dietary behaviors and physical activity were the focus of this study. Certain behaviors are more notable because of the large numbers of students affected by them. Subgroups were examined to assess risk behaviors among them.

Topics: Alcohol; college; risk

Fisher, B. S., Cullen, F. T., & Turner, M. G. (2002). Being pursued: Stalking victimization in a national study of college women. Criminology & Public Policy, 1, 257-308.

In a review of research on the victimization of women, the authors state that stalking has received little attention despite passage of extensive state and federal anti-stalking laws in the last 12 years. This study fills the research gap on stalking among college women as an at-risk population. The authors conducted a telephone survey drawing upon a nationally representative sample of women (N = 4,446) attending two and four year colleges and universities. Detailed questions were asked regarding stalking victimization (i.e., form, duration, intensity, location, injuries, reactions, and reporting) and victim-offender relationship. As a theoretical basis, the authors used lifestyle routine activity theory, which suggests that four particular lifestyles or routines (i.e., proximity to motivated offenders, exposure to crime, target attractiveness, and lack of guardianship) may put individuals at greater risk of victimization than those who do not engage in such activities or lifestyles. The relationship of demographic and lifestyle variables to stalking victimization was then examined within a multivariate statistical model. Results indicated that 13.1% of college women had been stalked once since the academic year began, 12.7% had been stalked twice, and 2.3% had been stalked three or more times. The median duration for a stalking incident was two months with 41% experiencing pursuit behaviors 2 to 6 times/week and another 13.3% experiencing them daily. Four in five victims knew their stalker; namely, 42.9% were current boyfriends or ex-boyfriends, 29% were classmates, and 10.4% were acquaintances. Substantial support was found for the routine activity theory. Propensity to be at places with alcohol, being in a relationship or dating, living alone, undergraduate status, higher SES class, prior sexual victimization, and being Non-Hispanic/Latina, Native American, or "Other," were significantly associated with stalking victimization. Given the high prevalence of stalking, the authors suggested college administrations should take a proactive approach to protecting female students.

Topics: College; risk; stalking

Fisher, B. S., Sloan, J. J., Cullen, F. T., & Lu, C. (1998). Crime in the ivory tower: The level and sources of student victimization. Criminology, 36, 671-710.

Using telephone interviews designed after the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), the authors collected data on criminal victimizations experienced by college students at twelve institutions on and off campus during the 1993–94 academic year. Drawing upon the lifestyle-routine activities approach, the authors collected information concerning student demographics, proximity to crime, exposure to crime, target attractiveness, and lack of capable guardianship. Results indicate that risk of property victimization was enhanced by proximity to crime, target attractiveness, exposure, and lack of guardianship. The recreational use of drugs and high levels of partying at night on campus were the most significant predictors of violent victimization. The authors conclude by suggesting that crime prevention strategies should be informed by such research and could prove useful in reducing crime experienced by college students.

Topics: College; risk; prevention; vulnerability

Follingstad, D. R., Bradley, R. G., Laughlin, J. E., & Burke, L. (1999). Risk factors and correlates of dating violence: The relevance of examining frequency and severity levels in a college sample. Violence & Victims, 14, 365-380.

The author examines risk factors for dating violence using self-reported methods. In all, 327 female and 290 male 1st-year college students were questioned about their exposure to violence. Students completed 12 measures that asked questions about coping skills, dating violence, and the use and perceived effectiveness of violence and control in interpersonal relationships. Results indicate that students that self-reported dating violence attributed it primarily to efforts to control the actions of their dating partner. Stress and communication issues played a large part, as did jealousy and difficulty dealing with anger. Men who reported committing dating violence tended to have more alcohol problems. The researchers indicate that there were no major differences in negative evaluation apprehension, self-esteem, or problem-solving skills between nonviolent and violent groups.

Topics: College; male-female relations; perpetration; risk

Graham, K., Leonard, K., Room, R., Wild, T., Pihl, R., Bois, C., & Single, E. (1998). Current directions in research on understanding and preventing intoxicated aggression. Addiction, 93, 659-676.

This paper provides an overview of some of the most salient areas of research concerning the complexities of the relationship between alcohol and aggression. It begins by outlining the range of research on intoxicated aggression and proceeds by addressing societal/cultural attitudes, expectations, and norms. Personal factors involved in intoxicated aggression are also discussed; for example, individual differences in aggressive predisposition and normative expectations. The authors then review research on the pharmacological effects of alcohol and drinking contexts. They ultimately propose intoxicated aggression as the interaction of pharmacological effects of alcohol consumption, individual differences, and contextual factors. The paper concludes by suggesting research possibilities for intervention strategies to prevent intoxicated aggression and violence.

Topics: Alcohol; risk; prevention

Gray, N. B., Palileo, G. J., & Johnson, G. D. (1993). Explaining rape victim blame: A test of attribution theory. Sociological Spectrum, 13, 377-392.

This study explored rape victim blaming attitudes among 1,177 college students by drawing upon two competing hypotheses within attribution theory; namely, “defensive attribution” and “need for control.” Students answered survey questionnaires measuring rape myths, previous sexual victimization, previous sexual aggression, risk taking behaviors, and additional questions concerning demographics and knowledge of rape prevention. The findings indicate that gender is the most significant predictor of rape victim blaming with females less likely to blame rape victims. Furthermore, risk taking and rape victim blaming were negatively associated among females whereas among males, previous sexual aggression and risk taking were more likely to be associated with victim blaming. In contrast, males with previous nonsexual victimization experience, males of higher class standing, and males who had prior exposure to rape prevention knowledge were less likely to engage in victim blaming. Foreign students and nonwhite students were most accepting of rape myths. Implications for rape prevention are proposed.

Topics: College; myths/stereotypes; racial/ethnic differences; risk

Groce, N. E., & Trasi, R. (2004). Rape of individuals with disability: AIDS and the folk belief of virgin cleansing. The Lancet, 363, 1663-1664.

The belief that a sexually transmitted disease can be cured by having sexual intercourse with a virgin is referred to as “virgin cleansing” and has been documented in various regions such as sub-Saharan Africa, Asia, Europe, and the Americas. This paper outlines the central issues surrounding the rape of disabled individuals as perpetrated by individuals infected with HIV. One study cited documented the virgin rape of disabled persons in 14 out of 21 countries assessed. Disabled people are particularly at risk of victimization given the specifics of their respective disability (i.e., blind, deaf, physically impaired, or intellectually disabled) as well as the challenges and barriers they face within the legal environment. For example, in the event that they do try to disclose their victimization, officials often reject their reports, assuming them to be confused. In some regions, individuals with disability are not even permitted to file a police report or to appear in court. All of these factors – in addition to the presence of a disability alone – enhances their level of risk and vulnerability to being victimized within this folk belief system.

Topics: Disabled; myths/stereotypes; risk

Gross, A. M., Winslett, A., Roberts, M., & Gohm, C. L. (2006). An examination of sexual violence against college women. Violence Against Women, 12, 288-300.

The purpose of the study was to examine the incidence and correlates of different forms of sexual victimization among a sample of college women. The sample consisted of 935 undergraduate female students who were recruited from introductory psychology classes and on-campus sororities. A questionnaire was administered to participants in small groups. The results showed that 27% of the women had experienced unwanted sexual contact since enrolling in college. Thirty-seven percent of the sample reported multiple forced sexual experiences. African-American women reported higher rates of sexual victimization compared to White women. Survivors and perpetrators reported high rates of alcohol consumption during the time of the sexual experience. Boyfriends were the most common perpetrator of sexual aggression. Implications for prevention efforts are discussed.

Topics: College; prevalence; risk

Hall, G. C. N. & Barongan, C. (1997). Prevention of sexual aggression: Sociocultural risk and protective factors. American Psychologist, 52, 5-14.

Physiological, cognitive, affective, and developmental sociocultural risk factors for perpetrating sexual aggression are identified. Feminine and multicultural socialization may serve as protective factors against these risk factors because both forms of socialization emphasize empathy and sexuality in the context of committed relationships. It is proposed that feminist and multicultural education across the developmental span may constitute methods of reducing and preventing the development of sexually aggressive behavior. However, feminist and multicultural approaches may have limited impact without greater acceptance within societal power structures, including psychology. The authors call for psychologists interested in reducing sexually aggressive behavior to become better informed and experienced with feminist and multicultural approaches. They also suggest that it may be time for all persons in society to become competent in multiple domains.

Topics: Prevention; risk

Hanson, R. K., & Harris, A. J. R. (2000). Where should we intervene?: Dynamic predictors of sexual assault recidivism. Criminal Justice & Behavior, 27, 6-35.

The authors interviewed community supervision officers and reviewed the files on 208 sexual offense recidivists and 201 nonrecidivists, with an eye to collecting data on dynamic (changeable) risk factors. They found that the recidivists generally had poor social supports, attitudes tolerant of sexual assault, antisocial lifestyles, poor self-management strategies, and difficulties cooperating with supervision. The recidivists and nonrecidivists were similar in terms of overall mood, but the recidivists showed increased anger and subjective distress just before re-offending. Dynamic risk factors continued to be strongly associated with recidivism, even after controlling for preexisting differences in static risk factors. The factors identified in the interview data were reflected (to a lesser extent) in the officers' contemporaneous case notes, suggesting that the interview findings are not completely attributable to retrospective recall bias.

Topics: Perpetration; risk

 Heise, L., Ellsberg, M., & Gottemoeller, M. (1999). Ending violence against women. Population Reports, Series L, Number 11, 1-43.

This report provides an admirably thorough review of the various dimensions concerning violence against women across the globe. The authors begin by addressing the concept of gender-based violence, how health care providers can help, and what societal responses should entail in curbing the problem. The report discusses in detail the prevalence and ramifications of intimate partner abuse, sexual coercion, impact of violence on women’s reproductive health, threats to health and development, the role of health providers in recognizing and treating the effects of violence, and finally, an agenda for change. The report includes numerous charts presenting, for example, cross-cultural data on issues related to rates of approval of wife-beating and prevalence of forced first intercourse in various countries. The report also includes examples of posters used to educate women and increase awareness of the issues in different countries as well as several useful charts with instructions and guidelines for health care providers. This is an invaluable resource for anyone interested in understanding violence against women on a global level.

Topics: Community attitudes/responses; disclosure; effects; injury; male-female relations; marital rape; medical response; myths/stereotypes; perpetration; prevalence; prevention; racial/ethnic differences; risk; statistics; underserved populations; vulnerability

Hensley, L. G. (2002). Treatment for survivors of rape: Issues and interventions. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 24, 331-347.

This article is a review of various issues and interventions related to counseling survivors of rape. It summarizes relevant statistics, discusses four important issues, and details four treatment modalities. The four issues discussed all relate to the experience of the rape survivor, including: 1) how sociocultural factors will influence the survivor's reaction to the rape, 2) the survivor's history of prior victimization, 3) the specific details of the assault against the survivor, and 4) how victim-blaming may affect the survivor's recovery. The treatment modalities detailed are drawn from best practices for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The first modality detailed is psychoeducation, where the counselor provides an education about commonly experienced PTSD symptoms. The second is exposure therapy, where the counselor guides the survivor through multiple re-tellings of the assault. The third modality is Resick and Schnicke's Cognitive Processing Therapy, where the survivor's maladaptive beliefs about the assault are identified and challenged. The final modality described is actually a summary of various anxiety management techniques.

Topics: Effects; risk; treatment

Hensley, C., Koscheski, M., & Tewksbury, R. (2005). Examining the characteristics of male sexual assault targets in a southern maximum-security prison. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20, 667-679.

The topic of prison sexuality, in particular male inmate sexual assault, has not received enough attention. In this paper, the authors present an overview of the literature concerning sexual victimization among inmates whereby the purpose of this study is to elucidate demographic and behavioral characteristics of targets of sexual assault within correctional facilities. The sample included 142 inmates from within a maximum-security correctional facility for men. Inmates were given a questionnaire that included items addressing consensual inmate sex and sexual coercion/assault. Results demonstrated that, while incarcerated, 18.3% of the sample had been sexual targets and 8.5% had been sexually assaulted. Additional findings are presented along with a discussion of the significance of sexual orientation as a risk factor for sexual victimization during incarceration.

Topics: Male rape; prevalence; prison rape; risk

Hilton, N., Harris, G., Rice, M., Krans, T., & Lavigne, S. (1998). Antiviolence education in high schools: Implementation and evaluation. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 13, 726-742.

This study examined the effects of a knowledge-based intervention administered to 350 eleventh grade students. Variables addressed included a measure of knowledge retained from the intervention, a measure of date rape attitudes, and a measure of self-reported physical and sexual aggression perpetrated by peers. Students chose to attend two 1-hour workshops from six available workshops. Analysis of their responses revealed results that may contribute toward improvements in future school-based prevention education programs. For example, classroom workshops were able to convey the most information. However, attrition of membership at the workshops, especially by students who scored low during the pretest, may account for the higher scores during the posttest phase. As such, the authors suggest that antiviolence education in high schools ought to involve training students to recognize warning signs of violence, provide them with guidance for terminating violent relationships, and aim to improve the selection of high-risk students for treatment.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; curriculum; evaluation; risk

Himelein, M. J. (1999). Acquaintance rape prevention with high-risk women: Identification and inoculation. Journal of College Student Development, 40, 93-96.

A small, short-term intervention involving undergraduate women was conducted in two steps: identifying women at risk and then attempting to "inoculate" them against acquaintance rape. Six different risk characteristics were used to identify high risk women. The group consisted of five 90-minute meetings conducted weekly in the campus counseling center. The women reported a high degree of satisfaction, considerable learning, and the belief that they had learned a great deal of relevant and worthwhile information. A follow-up questionnaire indicated that knowledge about sexual assault had increased.

Topics: College; prevention; risk

Himelein, M., Vogel, R., & Wachowiak, D. (1994). Nonconsensual sexual experiences in pre-college women: Prevalence and risk factors. Journal of Counseling & Development, 72, 411-415.

This article discusses the need for education and prevention programs to target younger audiences (secondary school age) and to revise the counseling needs for college-age victims. The objective of the author's research is to profile pre-college women's history of consensual and nonconsensual sexual experiences. They also examine the occurrence of child sexual abuse and consensual sexuality activity as potential risk factors for sexual victimization in dating. Implications for counselors are discussed.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; prevalence; prevention; risk

Irwin, C., & Rickert, V. (2005). Coercive sexual experiences during adolescence and young adulthood: A public health problem. Journal of Adolescent Health, 36, 359-361.

This editorial presents an overview of the articles published in its respective journal, the Journal of Adolescent Health (volume 36). As such, Irwin and Rickert summarize studies documenting patterns and prevalence of sexual violence among adolescents and young adults, risk factors associated with sexual violence among adolescents, treatment issues, the public health approach, prevention programs, and the need for screening of intimate partner violence.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; prevalence; risk

Kang, S. T., Magura, S., Laudet, A., & Whitney, S. (1999). Adverse effect of child abuse victimization among substance-using women in treatment. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 14, 657-670.

This study examined the adverse effect of childhood sexual/physical abuse among 171 substance-abusing women with infants or young children who were admitted to the Family Rehabilitation Program in New York City. Approximately one-half of the women (51%) self-reported ever having been sexually (24%) or physically (45%) abused in their childhood. Having a history of childhood abuse experiences, particularly sexual abuse, was associated with various areas of adult life functioning. Approximately 13 months after program admission, 82% of the sample was recontacted for follow-up. No significant associations were found between childhood abuse experiences and length of retention in services. However, several significant differences in service outcomes between sexually or physically abused women and nonabused women were found. The abused women had significantly more problems relating to drug use and psychiatric/psychological adjustment at follow-up. The findings support a need for substance dependency treatment programs tailored for women who have experienced serious childhood abuse.

Topics: Alcohol; effects; risk; underserved populations

Konradi, A. (2003). A strategy for increasing postrape medical care and forensic examination: Marketing sexual assault nurse examiners to the college population. Violence Against Women, 9, 955-988.

The goal of this study was to evaluate the processes and outcomes of a social marketing campaign that advertised sexual assault nurse examiner (SANE) services to the student body of a Midwestern university. Messages were developed that targeted rape myths and probable student-specific concerns as they related to SANE service usage. After poster advertisements with these messages were developed, they were evaluated by a class of undergraduate sociology students. After refinement, posters were displayed during two 2-week time periods in different quarters of the academic year. To target the entire student-body, posters were placed in toilet stalls of public buildings and dormitories. Television public service announcements also ran during the latter 2-week time period. For evaluation, a survey was developed and completed by a total of 653 students at the university. Findings indicated that approximately half of the students reported seeing SANE posters. On-campus residents and female students were more likely to identify as having been exposed to posters than off-campus residents and male students. Students exposed to more sources of information about SANE services, including nonposter sources, had greater knowledge about SANE services. Students who viewed themselves at high risk for sexual assault – mostly women – were more likely to assert that they would recommend SANE services to someone else. Finally, data on SANE service usage was still being collected and was therefore not included in the results. Proposed improvements for the marketing campaign included targeting messages toward men as victim allies; training professors to incorporate SANE information into their classes; and continuing to do SANE marketing campaigns during or in conjunction with sexual assault awareness events.

Topics: College; risk; victim services

Koss, M. P., & Cleveland, H. H. (1997). Stepping on toes: Social roots of date rape lead to intractability and politicization. In M. D. Schwartz (Ed.), Researching sexual violence against women: Methodological and personal perspectives (pp. 4-21). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

This article discusses approaches to understanding rape and sexual aggression. The authors contend that rape-supportive environments encourage sexually aggressive men to act on their impulses and discourage women from identifying and reporting experiences of victimization. Coercive beliefs and aggressive behaviors are examined as part of our cultural understanding of sexuality. The authors address why this area of research is politicized and what this politicization means.

Topics: Male-female relations; risk; perpetration; vulnerability

Koss, M. P., & Dinero, T. E. (1989). Discriminant analysis of risk factors for sexual victimization among a national sample of college women. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 57, 242-250.

This research examined the accuracy with which rape and lesser sexual assaults were predicted among a representative national sample of 2,723 college women. A total of 14 risk variables operationalized three vulnerability hypotheses: (a) vulnerability-creating traumatic experiences, (b) social-psychological vulnerability, and (c) vulnerability-enhancing situations. Each hypothesis was tested individually and a composite model was developed using discriminant analysis. Only the traumatic experiences variables clearly improved over the base rates in identifying rape victims, but risk variables from each vulnerability hypothesis met criteria for inclusion in the composite model. A risk profile emerged that characterized only 10% of the women, but among them the risk of rape was twice the rate of women without the profile. The concept of traumatic sexualization was used to explain this finding. However, the vast majority of sexually victimized women (75–91%) could not be differentiated from nonvictims.

Topics: College; risk; vulnerability

Lanier, C. A., & Elliot, M. N. (1997). A new instrument for the evaluation of a date rape prevention program. Journal of College Student Development, 38, 673-676.

This article presents the results of a study of a new behavior scale designed specifically to evaluate the efficacy of date rape prevention programs. The sample included 436 college students who filled-out the College Date Rape Attitude and Behavior Survey (CDRABS). The survey contains 20 questions addressing attitudes and 7 questions addressing behaviors, all of which pertain to heterosexual date rape on campuses. Women had lower rape-supportive attitudes than men, suggesting convergent validity of this scale with other measures of rape-supportive attitudes. Significant correlations between certain attitude and behavior items indicate that the attitude scale may be predictive of rape-supportive behavior among men as well as predictive of women's self-reported high risk behaviors given certain attitudes toward sexual activity among the women. The authors propose that the CDRABS may be useful for measuring students' initial attitudes and behaviors as well as serving as an instrument in the evaluation of date rape prevention programs designed to enhance awareness of date rape prevention.

Topics: College; evaluation; male-female relations; prevention; risk

Lisak, D., & Ivan, C. (1995). Deficits in intimacy and empathy in sexually aggressive men. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 10(3), 296-308.

The focus of this article is to test three hypotheses about the gender socialization of sexually aggressive men. Two studies are presented that compare non-aggressive men to sexually aggressive men. The first study uses a sample of 15 self-reported rapists and 15 control subjects. The second study uses a sample of 198 undergraduate students. The findings support the “gender-socialization” theory of sexual aggression, suggesting that men who reject “feminine” attributes will also be likely to reject intimacy and will have an increased likelihood of acting out aggressively toward women.

Topics: Male-female relations; risk

Lisak, D., & Roth, S. (1988). Motivational factors in nonincarcerated sexually aggressive men. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 55, 795-802.

The purpose of this study was to determine whether some of the factors that underlie power and anger motivations in convicted rapists are also applicable to self-reported sexually aggressive men. The subjects of this experiment were 184 junior and senior men enrolled in various psychology classes who completed the Sexual Experiences Questionnaire. The findings show that some of the factors that underlie the anger and power motivations of convicted rapists may also be applicable to non-incarcerated sexually aggressive college men. Future research is suggested.

Topics: Perpetration; risk

Loh, C., Gidycz, C. A., Lobo, T. R., & Luthra, R. (2005). A prospective analysis of sexual assault perpetration: Risk factors related to perpetrator characteristics. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20, 1325-1348.

The purpose of the study was to assess perpetrator risk factors for committing sexual assault. The risk factors under investigation included peer influences, beliefs and attitudes about sexuality, alcohol use, and token resistance. A longitudinal design was implemented and included a baseline, 3-month follow-up, and 7-month follow-up. Out of 325 undergraduate male students, 215 participated in all three assessment periods. Approximately one third (31.2%) of the participants reported engaging in sexually aggressive behaviors after age 14 and before starting the study. The prospective analyses showed that history of sexual perpetration and fraternity membership at baseline were significant predictors of sexual aggression during the 3-month time period. Significant predictors of sexual aggression during the 7-month time period were sexual perpetration during the 3-month follow-up and adversarial heterosexual beliefs. Other variables were not significant predictors. The impact of the findings on sexual assault prevention programs for men is discussed.

Topics: College; perpetration; risk

Malamuth, N. M., Addison, T., & Koss, M. (2000). Pornography and sexual aggression: Are there reliable effects and can we understand them? Annual Review of Sex Research, 11, 26-91.

The authors are responding to recent critiques of their work. Their responses delineate the arguments and data presented in those commentaries; integrate the findings of several meta-analytic summaries of experimental and naturalistic research; and statistically analyze a large representative sample. The responses support the existence of reliable associations between frequent pornography use and sexually aggressive behaviors, particularly for violent pornography and/or for men at high risk for sexual aggression. The authors suggest that relatively aggressive men interpret and react to the same pornography differently than do nonaggressive men. This perspective can help to integrate the current analyses with studies comparing rapists and nonrapists as well as with cross-cultural research.

Topics: Perpetration; risk; statistics

Malamuth, N. M., Linz, D., Heavey, C. L., Barnes, G., et al. (1995). Using the confluence model of sexual aggression to predict men's conflict with women: A 10-year follow-up study. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 69, 353-369.

The research presented in this article analyzes some of the characteristics of men who are likely to engage in sexual aggression. Sexual aggression is divided into two potential types: hostile masculinity and promiscuous-impersonal sexual orientation. The sample consisted of a group of men who were studied, through self-reports, in early adulthood and then subsequently studied, also through self-reports, ten years later. Some of the female partners of these men were also questioned. Using the confluence model of sexual aggression, it was determined that several variables can be identified as contributing to men’s sexual aggression and other conflicts with women. Future research is discussed.

Topics: Male-female relations; perpetration; risk

Maxwell, C., Robinson, A., & Post, L. (2003). The nature and predictors of sexual victimization and offending among adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 32, 465-477.

Many studies have been conducted investigating the factors surrounding adult sexual assault perpetration and victimization. Recently, studies on young adults and adolescents have revealed that alarmingly high rates of sexual assault victims are under the age of 18 years old. The purpose of this study was to investigate the prevalence and nature of sexual aggression among adolescents. Participants included 476 students from two high schools who volunteered to answer a self-report survey. This consisted of several measures: the RAPE Attitudes Scale, the Attitudes Toward Victims Scale, and the Legal Knowledge Scale. In addition, questions concerning demographics and dating behaviors were also included. Analyses of their responses indicated that almost half of the female students reported experiencing some form of sexual aggression and one-third of the male students reported having engaged in some form of sexual aggression. Additional differences across demographic variables were found to be significant. Among these, certain risk factors were evident; in particular, the likelihood of reporting victimization was higher among students who reported more frequent dating during the past month and/or dating various people during the previous six months. Furthermore, women not planning on attending college reported higher rates of sexual assault victimization. Legal knowledge about rape and positive attitudes towards women were correlated with lower levels of sexual assault perpetration among high school men. Implications for school-based prevention programs are reviewed.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; perpetration; prevalence; prevention; risk

Mayall, A., & Gold, S. R. (1995). Definitional issues and mediating variables in the sexual revictimization of women sexually abused as children. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 10, 26-42.

This study examined the effect of using three different definitions of child sexual abuse (CSA) and three definitions of adult sexual assault (ASA) on revictimization rates. Participants were 654 female undergraduates (aged 17–36 years). Definitions of CSA varied in the degree of contact. Definitions of ASA varied in degree of contact and force used. Variables hypothesized to mediate the rate of revictimization included parental support, attributional style, coping style, severity of abuse, and involvement in psychotherapy. Contact forms of CSA were associated with significant rates of revictimization, although non-contact CSA was not associated with revictimization. Revictimized women could not be discriminated from non-revictimized women based on the proposed mediating variables. Level of adult sexual experience was the best predictor of ASA. A high level of sexual activity is proposed as the link between CSA and ASA.

Topics: Risk; vulnerability

McCall, G. J. (1993). Risk factors and sexual assault prevention. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 8, 277-295.

The author asserts that sexual assault prevention programming has little scientific underpinning and is thus scattered and incoherent in its development. This situation reflects general policy biases against sexuality-related interventions as well as "merely preventive" programs. The author argues that an ambiguity of societal vision has undermined the cause of sexual assault prevention. Sexual assault prevention suffers because it fully fits neither the traditional crime prevention model nor the traditional public health model of prevention programming. The author traces the technical and political consequences of this fundamental ambiguity, giving consideration to a transcendental alternative model.

Topics: Prevention; risk

Merrill, L. L., Newell, C. E., Milner, J. S., Koss, M. P., Hervig, L. K., Gold, S. R., et al. (1998). Prevalence of premilitary adult sexual victimization and aggression in a Navy recruit sample. Military Medicine, 163, 209-212.

This article addresses the need for identifying, treating, educating, and preventing sexual assault among military recruits based on a survey of 3,776 US Navy recruits. Results from the survey revealed that 45.5% of the women had experienced attempted rape (9.4%) or completed rape (36.1%) prior to joining the Navy. Of the male recruits, 14.8% admitted committing attempted (3.5%) or completed rape (11.3%) prior to joining the Navy. Since sexual assault victims are likely to require psychological and/or physical treatment by health care providers and male perpetrators are likely to re-offend, it is crucial that the military address these issues among recruits so that intervention and prevention are possible.

Topics: Military; perpetration; prevalence; prevention; risk

Merrill, L. L., Newell, C. E., Thomsen, C. J., Gold, S. R., Milner, J. S., Koss, M. P., et al. (1999). Childhood abuse and sexual revictimization in a female Navy recruit sample. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 12, 211-225.

The authors surveyed 1,887 female Navy recruits in order to examine the effects of childhood abuse on adult rape. A total of 35% of recruits had been raped and 57% had experienced childhood physical abuse (CPA) and/or childhood sexual abuse (CSA). Controlling for CPA, rape was significantly (4.8 times) more likely among women who had experienced CSA than among women who had not. In contrast, CPA (controlling for CSA) was unrelated to likelihood of adult rape. The authors included alcohol problems and number of sex partners as mediators in their models. Although both variables predicted rape, their effects were independent of the effects of CSA. Finally, despite ethnic group differences in the prevalence of victimization, the predictors of rape did not differ significantly across ethnic groups.

Topics: Military; prevalence; risk; survivors

Messman-Moore, T. L. & Brown, A. L. (2006). Risk perception, rape, and sexual revictimization: A prospective study of college women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30, 159-172. [Posted January 2007.]

Key Points: Delayed responses to a hypothetical acquaintance rape scenario increased college women’s risks for rape and revictimization during an 8 month follow-up period.

Abstract: In this longitudinal study, 262 women completed a series of questionnaires four times over eight months. Rates of sexual victimization and rape experienced by participants were assessed over time. At baseline, 56.8% of the women had already experienced some form of sexual victimization in their lifetime.
Participants were asked to read two scenarios ending in rape, one involving a male acquaintance and the other a male stranger (scenarios are presented in the Appendix).  Women indicated at what point during the scenario they would feel uncomfortable and when they would leave the situation.

During the eight month follow-up period, 43.4% of participants reported some type of unwanted sexual experience, and 10% of the women were raped. Prior victimization and delayed risk response (i.e., leaving the hypothetical situation later in the scenario) were associated with increased likelihood of sexual victimization during the course of the study. 

The researchers recommended that prevention programs place more emphasis on risk-reduction behaviors rather than risk identification, and that acquaintance rape scenarios should be used more than stranger rape scenarios in sexual violence education programs.

Topics: College; prevalence; risk

Moffitt, T. E., & Caspi, A. (1999). Findings about partner violence from the Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study. National Institute of Justice: Research in Brief, 1-12.

This report summarizes the results of a study conducted on a birth cohort of 1,037 men and women born in New Zealand between April 1, 1972 and March 31, 1973. The Dunedin researchers focused on partner violence as a potential example of antisocial behavior during childhood and teenage delinquency carried over into adulthood. Results of the study revealed that partner violence is associated with risk factors in childhood and adolescence involving poverty and low academic achievement for men and harsh family discipline and parental discord for women. Mental illness was present among 65% of females exposed to physical abuse and among 88% of the male perpetrators. The strongest risk factor for male and female perpetrators of partner violence involved a history of physically aggressive behavior prior to the age of 15 years. The findings from this study suggest that three intervention tactics are necessary to reduce partner violence in adulthood. The first needs to teach teenagers to avoid using violence against their partners. The second strategy involves interventions with young parents to reduce their stress and subsequently reduce the potential for exposure of their children to violence within the home. Lastly, given the findings that perpetrators of partner violence tend to be mentally ill and engage in other violent crimes, intervention needs to draw upon the interaction of law enforcement, the judicial system, and the mental health profession.

Topics: Marital rape; perpetration; prevention; risk; underserved populations

Muehlenhard, C., & Linton, M. (1987). Date rape and sexual aggression in dating situations: Incidence and risk factors. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 34, 186-196.

This study assessed the incidence of, and risk factor, for date rape and other forms of male-against-female sexual aggression in dating situations. Results showed that 77.6% of the women and 57.3% of the men had been involved in some form of sexual aggression. Risk factors included the man initiating the date, paying all the expenses, and driving; miscommunication about sex; heavy alcohol or drug use; "parking”; men's acceptance of traditional sex roles, interpersonal violence, adversarial attitudes about relationships, and rape myths. The length of time that dating partners had known each other seemed unrelated to the risk of sexual assault. The authors discuss implications of their findings for rape prevention programs.

Topics: Alcohol; male-female relations; myths/stereotypes; perpetration; prevalence; risk

Mustaine, E. E., & Tewksbury, R. (1999). A routine activity theory explanation for women's stalking victimizations. Violence Against Women, 5, 43-62.

This article presents a routine activity theory model for predicting stalking victimization likelihood for women. Surveys administered to 861 university women in nine institutions were examined. Using routine activity theory, the model highlights lifestyle behaviors and interactions as predictors of stalking victimization. While routine activity theory typically highlights the role of demographics and status as predictors of victimization, this analysis emphasizes the role of women's social interactions and substance use in victimization risk. Significant predictors of victimization likelihood include substance use variables, activities in public settings, and residence off campus.

Topics: College; risk; stalking; theory

Norris, J., Nurius, P., & Graham, T. (1999). When a date changes from fun to dangerous: Factors affecting women's ability to distinguish. Violence Against Women, 5, 230-250.

The likelihood of acquaintance rape depends in part on women's abilities to perceive risks. In this study, the authors assessed relationships between women's recognition of known situational risk factors and global perceived risk; prior victimization; and drinking habits. Women consistently distinguished between clear and ambiguous situational risk factors. However, these were not related to perceived global risk. They also underestimated their own risk of being assaulted relative to the risk of other women being assaulted. Both prior victimization and drinking habits were related to risk judgments. This study raises issues concerning the development of effective defensive strategies for combating sexual assault.

Topics: Alcohol; avoidance/resistance; risk

Nurius, P. S. (2000). Risk perception for acquaintance sexual aggression: A social-cognitive perspective. Aggression & Violent Behavior, 5, 63-78.

The authors discuss the fact that beliefs about sources of harm and personal susceptibility to harm have been shown to play an important role in subsequent self-protection from harm. Women generally report low levels of perceived personal risk from acquaintances and are therefore ill-prepared to prevent threat from them. In order to change this situation, we need a better understanding of factors that shape perception of risk and how these factors are likely to negatively and positively influence women's risk reduction and self-protection. To this end, the authors, review recent literature on risk perception and identify relevant applications of theory and findings to women's perception of risk for sexual aggression by acquaintances.

Topics: Avoidance/resistance; risk; theory

O'Keefe, M., & Treister, L. (1998). Victims of dating violence among high school students: Are the predictors different for males and females? Violence Against Women, 4, 195-223.

This study examines whether predictors of dating violence differ for males and females. Predictors are grouped according to three categories: sociodemographic, contextual, and situational. The sociodemographic category includes ethnicity and family SES. The contextual domain is comprised of distal predictors including: experiencing physical aggression, accepting violence, inter-parental aggression, community and school violence, interpersonal control, and self-esteem. Situational predictors are proximal and include: relationship satisfaction, relationship seriousness, length of dating relationships, number of dating relationships, relationship conflict, and inflicting dating violence. Separate analyses are conducted for males and females. Results indicate different patterns of predictors for males and females and that, while both sexes report similar motivations for engaging in dating violence, males report initiating dating violence more frequently (if equal responsibility was not declared). Results also indicate that the effects of the violence are more severe for females.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; male-female relations; perpetration; risk

Paik, H., & Comstock, G. (1994). The effects of television violence on antisocial behavior: A meta-analysis. Communication Research, 21, 516-546.

A quantitative collection of research findings and their subsequent interpretation of the influence of television violence and its link with aggressive, antisocial, or delinquent behavior is the focus of this article. Included in this meta-analysis are both experimental studies and surveys. Internal validity of each study was assessed. This analysis aims to take advantage of recently developed techniques and the enlarged database and to give more emphasis to "real world violence" to show a causal relationship between violent television viewing and aggressive behavior. The findings show that all types of aggressive behavior have highly significant effect sizes associated with exposure to television.

Topics: Risk

Palarea, R. E., Zona, M. A., Lane, J. C., & Langhinrichsen-Rohling, J. (1999). The dangerous nature of intimate relationship stalking: Threats, violence, and associated risk factors. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 17, 269-283.

The authors compared 135 intimate and 88 non-intimate stalking cases managed by the Los Angeles Police Department's Threat Management Unit. Results indicate a significant relationship between the stalkers' intimate status and violence committed toward persons and property. The relationship was positively influenced by the suspect's proximity to the victim and threats toward the victim and property but was not influenced by suspect's criminal, psychiatric, and domestic violence history. Overall, intimate relationship stalkers used more dangerous stalking behaviors than non-intimate relationship stalkers. Risk factors for assessing dangerousness of stalkers are also discussed.

Topics: Risk; stalking

Parks, K. A., & Miller, B. A. (1997). Bar victimization of women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 509-525.

This study provides a preliminary description of the types of violence experienced by women bar drinkers and the roles of exposure and impairment as risk factors for encountering bar-related aggression – an area of research that has been hitherto neglected. Data were collected from 52 women bar drinkers (mean age 31.9 years) through self-administered questionnaires and focus-group discussions about their lifestyles, alcohol and drug use, and patterns of bar drinking. Nearly half of the women (48.1%) had experienced physical violence (e.g., assault) and one-third (32.6%) had experienced either attempted or completed rape associated with drinking in a bar. The authors conclude that women who regularly drink in bars experience a substantial amount of physical and sexual aggression associated with these settings.

Topics: Alcohol; risk; vulnerability

Parrot, A. (1989). Acquaintance rape among adolescents: Identifying risk groups and intervention strategies. Journal of Social Work and Human Sexuality, 8, 47-60.

This article discusses various dimensions of acquaintance rape in adolescent and young adult populations, including frequency, patterns of occurrence, characteristics of assailants, and behaviors that place adolescents at risk of becoming victims. The authors address the need for victim counseling and discuss appropriate advocacy roles for the social worker, police, medical professionals, and the victim's family and friends.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; risk

Rosen, L. N., & Martin, L. (1998). Predictors of tolerance of sexual harassment among male U.S. Army soldiers. Violence Against Women, 4, 491-504.

The tolerance of sexual harassment in the Army was examined in relation to three variables thought to be indicative of negative attitudes toward women. The first was a personality variable; that is, negative masculinity associated with aggressive characteristics. The second measured hostility toward women and the third measured the acceptance of women as men's equals in the Army. All three variables predicted tolerance of sexual harassment in the Army. Hostility toward women was the strongest predictor, followed by negative masculinity and acceptance of women.

Topics: Harassment; risk; underserved populations

Saunders, B. E., Kilpatrick, D. G., Hanson, R. F., Resnick, H. S., & Walker, M. E. (1999). Prevalence, case characteristics, and long-term psychological correlates of child rape among women: A national survey. Child Maltreatment: Journal of the American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children, 4, 187-200.

A national probability sample of 4,008 adult women (aged 18–69+ years) was screened by phone for a history of completed rape in childhood using the Incident Classification Interview (Kilpatrick et al., 1989). Characteristics of child rape incidents were also assessed. Respondents were evaluated for a history of major depressive episode, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and substance use problems. This study endeavored to: (1) determine the prevalence of a history of completed rape in childhood among adult women in the United States; (2) collect incident-characteristic data about child rapes to develop a national profile of these assaults; and (3) examine the increased risk, if any, that being the victim of at least one child rape presents to women for developing PTSD, major depression, and substance use problems. Results showed that childhood rape dramatically increases risk for the development of psychological problems. The article concludes with a discussion of the implications of these results for prevention, intervention, and future research.

Topics: Effects; prevalence; prevention; risk; survivors

Scott, C. S., Lefley, H. P., & Hicks, D. (1993). Potential risk factors for rape in three ethnic groups. Community Mental Health Journal, 29, 133-141.

The authors discuss the frequency of risk factors detected in a study of sexual assault among African American, Hispanic, and non-Hispanic White women during treatment at a major rape treatment center. A total of 881 victims were screened: 449 were negative for observable risk factors while the remaining 432 were positive for risk factors. These risk factors included: previous history of rape or incest, mental disability, tourist or visitor status, and homelessness. Results suggest that ethnic groups vary significantly in these categories. It is suggested that economic and cultural variables may affect rape risk factors and should be taken into account when planning rape prevention programs.

Topics: Prevention; racial/ethnic differences; risk; survivors

Short, L. M., McMahon, P. M., Chervin, D. D., Shelley, G. A., Lezin, N., Sloop, K. S., et al. (2000). Survivors' identification of protective factors and early warning signs for intimate partner violence. Violence Against Women, 6, 272-285.

This study proposed hypotheses concerning factors that may place women at risk for an abusive relationship, the potential early warning signs for physical partner violence, and the potential protective factors for cessation of violence once it has begun. Questions addressed women in violent sexual relationships: reasons women remain in abusive relationships, factors that may end the violence, barriers, potential early warning signs, resources, racial differences, and location differences. Urban and rural African American and White women (N = 168) in five US regions were recruited for 22 focus groups. Participants were between the ages of 18–50 years old, had been exposed to physical violence in intimate relationships, and were free of violence for at least 6 months at the time of the study. Similarities were found among all groups in their experiences of intimate partner violence. Furthermore, women in the focus groups stated that once violence began within their relationships, it escalated over time. The authors suggest implications for intervention. For example, the information gleaned from the participants may be informative to institutions that are active in removing women from violent relationships. Particularly, three areas of prevention implications were discussed. These include: the need for awareness in identifying early warning signs of intimate partner violence, the significance of family abuse history, and the need to educate adolescents – especially young girls – prior to the development of any intimate relationships.

Topics: Male-female relations; prevention; racial/ethnic differences; risk; survivors

Sochting, I., Fairbrother, N., & Koch, W. J. (2004). Sexual assault of women: Prevention efforts and risk factors. Violence Against Women, 10, 73-93.

This review article summarizes the research on the effectiveness of different types of rape prevention programs, including attitude change and self-defense programs. A review of the body of literature on risk factors for sexual assault is also presented. Strategies for improving rape prevention programs are highlighted and include identifying targets for behavioral change based on risk factors and training women in rape resistance strategies. Results suggested that attitude change was a less effective prevention approach.

Topics: Avoidance/resistance; college; evaluation; prevention; risk; vulnerability

Tjaden, P., & Thoennes, N. (2000a). Extent, nature, and consequences of intimate partner violence: Findings from the National Violence Against Women Survey (NCJ 181867). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice.

This report presents findings from the National Violence Against Women (NVAW) Survey on the extent, nature, and consequences of intimate partner violence in the United States. The survey compares victimization rates among 16,000 women and men, specific racial groups, Hispanics and non-Hispanics, and same-sex and opposite-sex cohabitants. It also examines risk factors associated with intimate partner violence, the rate of injury among rape and physical assault victims, injured victims' use of medical services, and victims' involvement with the justice system. (*ADHS funded agencies can request a copy of this report by contacting the RPEP office. The report can also be obtained directly from publications section of the National Institute of Justice website: http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/.)

Topics: Legal responses; male rape; racial/ethnic differences; risk

Tyler, K. A., Hoyt, D. R., & Whitbeck, L. B. (1998). Coercive sexual strategies. Violence and Victims, 13, 47-61.

The study in this article examines the sexually coercive behaviors of men and the outcomes of these behaviors on women using a sample of 541 undergraduate college students. It was determined that men used three types of coercive sexual strategies. Data was analyzed on the use of these strategies and women's experience with these coercive behaviors. For women, being a victim of sexually coercive strategies is significantly correlated with being sexually active, having sexually permissive attitudes, and drinking alcohol. For men, sexually permissive attitudes and attitudes toward rape were significantly correlated with the use of verbal coercion. Gathering data from both the perpetrator and the victim allows for a broader representation of the fundamental processes of the manner in which sexually coercive behaviors are played out.

Topics: Risk; vulnerability

Vicary, J., Klingaman, L., & Harkness, W. (1995). Risk factors associated with date rape and sexual assault of adolescent girls. Journal of Adolescence, 18, 289-306.

This article discusses a research project which spanned four years, in which prevalence of and risk factors associated with unwanted sexual activity by dates/boyfriends was studied in a sample of rural, adolescent girls. Earlier age of menarche and sexual activity, as well as more sexually active same-sex friends, poor peer relationships, and poor emotional status were found to be significant predictors of sexual assault. Familial variables, such as living with both biological parents, church attendance, and quality of relationship between the subject and her family, were not found to be significant predictors of unwanted sexual activity.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; prevalence; risk

Widom, C. S. (1989). Child abuse, neglect and adult behavior: Research design and findings on criminality, violence and child abuse. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 59, 355-367.

The purpose of this article is to determine the extent to which individuals engage in delinquency and adult criminal behavior based on having been abused as a child. The sample group consisted of documented cases of child abuse from 1967 through 1971 with a control group, with no history of abuse, matched by similar demographics. Subsequent juvenile and adult criminal records for both the sample group and the control group were obtained. The findings show that the sample group had higher records of adult criminal offenses than the control group, but they did not show a higher incidence of arrests for child abuse or neglect. The necessity for further research is discussed.

Topics: Effects; risk

Young, A., Young, A. & Fullwood, H. (2007). Adolescent online victimization. The Prevention Researcher, 14, 8-9. [Posted April 2007.]

Key Points: As Internet use becomes more common, the number of youth exposed to online sexual solicitation, sexual material, and harassment (sexual or bullying) has increased.

Abstract: In a review of three recent studies, the authors estimated national prevalence of online victimization of youth at 13% for sexual solicitation; 34% for exposure to unwanted sexual material; and 9% for any type of harassment. The majority of incidents was not distressing and was not reported to adults.

Risk factors for online victimization included older age (youth 14-17 were at higher risk than younger children) and gender (girls were more likely to experience sexual solicitation or harassment than boys). In one study, 60% of youth gave out personal information in an online questionnaire or form. About 45% gave that information to someone they had met online.

Possible prevention strategies include frank discussion by adults about Internet victimization so that youth are better equipped to avoid it and deal with it if it happens. The authors recommended making youth aware of the possible consequences of sharing personal information online. Adults can also prepare youth to take action if they are victimized: removing themselves from the situation; changing screen name; and reporting the incident to prevent others from being victimized.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; harassment; media/ Internet; prevalence; prevention; risk

Updated 08/01/07