Amey, A. L., & Bishai, D. (2002). Measuring the quality of medical care for women who experience sexual assault with data from the National Hospital Ambulatory Medical Care Survey. Annals of Emergency Medicine, 39, 631-638.

According to CDC guidelines, victims of rape should be offered emergency contraception (EC) as well as screening and treatment for sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). The extent to which these treatments have been provided has not been assessed at a national level. This study offers a descriptive epidemiology of female rape victims receiving these particular services at emergency departments (ED) by drawing upon a nationally representative sample. These findings were then compared with CDC guidelines. Data was collected from the National Hospital Ambulatory Medical Care Survey (NHAMCS) for the years spanning 1992 to 1998. Cases were deemed as receiving EC if women were administered or prescribed drugs from the national drug class 1040 (contraceptives). Women were considered to have obtained screening for STDs if they received urinalysis tests or specific CPT procedures. Furthermore, women were considered to have received treatment if they were given prophylaxis. Findings revealed 204 sexual assault cases from a total of 182,107 ED records available. Results indicated that 20% of women received EC, 36% were screened for STDs, and 23% were screened for HIV. Of those screened, only 34% received STD treatment. Women over 18 were twice as likely to receive STD screening and treatment than those younger than 18 years. Black women were significantly more likely to be screened for STDs and more likely to receive prophylaxis than White women were. The authors conclude that a significant number of victims of sexual assault are not receiving ED medical care as recommended by CDC guidelines and may be better served by hospitals with specialized programs for sexual trauma.

Topics: Effects; medical response; racial/ethnic differences

Anderson, N. L. R., Uman, G. C., Keenan, C. K., Koniak-Griffin, D., et al. (1996).The process of instrument development for ethnically diverse early adolescents. Journal of Early Adolescence, 16, 427-450.

Describes the development of an evaluation instrument used to assess major content areas in the Reaching Adolescents and Parents (RAP) curriculum – a community-based family education intervention delivered to ethnically diverse communities in Los Angeles County. The authors discuss the challenges associated with creating a valid, reliable, and relevant tool that is audience-appropriate. The wording, format, and question content were structured to be appropriate for ages 10–14 years. The tool was developed using focus groups and pilot-testing.

Topics: Curriculum; evaluation; racial/ethnic differences

Arellano, C. M., Kuhn, J. A., & Chavez, E. L. (1997). Psychosocial correlates of sexual assault among Mexican American and White non-Hispanic adolescent females. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 19, 446-460.

A sample of 1,121 Mexican American and White non-Hispanic adolescent females were surveyed in order to examine the rates and correlates of sexual abuse in both groups. Psychosocial characteristics of those reporting sexual abuse (mean age 16.51 years) were compared to those reporting no sexual assault history (mean age 16.57 years). The results indicated that White non-Hispanic adolescents were twice as likely to report sexual assault as compared to Mexican American adolescents. Although rates of sexual assault appeared to differ across ethnicity, ethnicity did not seem to effect the relationship between sexual assault and psychosocial outcomes of victims. In general, sexual assault victims reported more social isolation, emotional distress, and more atypical behavior, including drug and/or alcohol use. Sexual assault victims also reported problems with school adjustment and choice of friends. In addition, they were more likely to come from homes with parental substance use and family conflict.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; effects; racial/ethnic differences

Bletzer, K. V., & Koss, M. P. (2006). After-rape among three populations in the Southwest. Violence Against Women, 12, 5-29. [Posted January 2007.]

Key Points: While women’s experience of surviving rape is similar across cultural and ethnic backgrounds, differences in their descriptions of the event may guide primary and secondary intervention strategies.

Abstract: The way a person describes an experience can give insight to the meaning of the event in their life. This study included analysis of life narratives by 62 female sexual violence survivors from three ethnic/cultural groups of the Southwest: Mexican American, Native American (Southern Cheyenne), and  Anglo. All the women were low income, and the mean age of each group was about 35 years.

Most of the women knew the perpetrator. Women in all groups described their feelings after rape as anger, defilement, and degradation. Few women reported the rape to police or talked to a mental health worker. When describing their long-term strategy for dealing with the rape, Anglo women were more likely to discuss taking control or leaving the memory of the event behind them. Native American women talked more about forgetting the incident or blocking it out. Mexican American women were less likely to describe active efforts to return to a “normal” life and talked more about the continuing effects of the rape on their lives. All of the women described difficulty in interpersonal relationships and in trusting men.

The researchers recommended designing post-rape interventions that are sensitive to differences in sociocultural backgrounds, and educating community members to support survivors. 

Topics: Racial/ethnic differences; survivors

Caetano, R., Field, C. A., Ramisetty-Mikler, S., & McGrath, C. (2005). The 5-year course of intimate partner violence among White, Black, and Hispanic couples in the United States. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20, 1039-1057.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is considered to be a serious public health issue. This study examined differences in IPV incidence, prevalence, and recurrence across three ethnic groups spanning a five year interval. Face-to-face interviews using standardized questionnaires included the following measures: the Conflict Tactics Scale to assess IPV; quantity and frequency of alcohol consumption as well as alcohol-related problems; psychosocial items concerning childhood physical abuse and childhood exposure to partner violence; approval of marital aggression; and sociodemographic items (e.g., ethnicity, income, and employment status). Results showed that patterns of prevalence, incidence, recurrence, and remission of IPV vary across ethnic groups and other demographic variables in such a way as to support sociostructural and social learning approaches to appreciating patterns of partner violence.

Topics: Male-female relations; prevalence; racial/ethnic differences

Corcoran, K. J. (1999). Sexual aggression and sociocultural risk. American Psychologist, 54, 70-71.

This commentary is a critical analysis of Hall and Barongan’s 1997 article entitled “Prevention of sexual aggression: Sociocultural risk and protective factors” that appeared in American Psychologist (vol. 52, pp. 5-14). Corcoran argues that Hall and Barongan’s hypothesis concerning the “protective effect of ethnic minority socialization” in preventing sexual aggression is misguided on two counts: They try to interpret a nonsignificant result from a single study and they misinterpret meaningful information in the available data. Corcoran suggests that the rate of occurrence of sexual aggression within a cultural group is more meaningful than the proportion of total perpetrators within that group. Furthermore, he proposes that the use of ethnic labeling, while consistent with a multicultural approach, belies the complexities of the causes and protective factors related to sexual aggression.

Topics: Racial/ethnic differences; risk

Cortina, L. M., Swan, S. Fitzgerald, L. F., & Waldo, C. (1998). Sexual harassment and assault: Chilling the climate for women in academia. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 22, 419-441.

This article documents the widespread and harmful extent of sexual harassment and sexual assault on college campuses. The authors report that few studies have investigated the impact of harassment and assault in academia. For this study, 1,037 female undergraduate and graduate students were surveyed regarding their experiences with sexual harassment and assault and how victimization affected their scholarship. The extent and impact of double victimization was also investigated. Issues of sexual orientation and race/ethnicity are examined, with membership in different groups affecting victimization incidence.

Topics: College; harassment; racial/ethnic differences

Donovan, R., & Williams, M. (2002). Living at the intersection: The effects of racism and sexism on Black rape survivors. In C. M. West (Ed.), Violence in the lives of Black women: Battered, black, and blue (pp. 95-105). Binghamton, NY: The Haworth Press, Inc.

Research indicates that Black rape survivors are less likely to disclose and more likely to be blamed for their assault. The authors argue that two historical images of Black women, Jezebel and Matriarch, explain the reduced rate of disclosure by Black women today. A Black woman as Jezebel meant that she was promiscuous, immoral, and sexually deviant. Today, the authors propose, this depiction combines with common rape myths to prevent Black women from disclosing their rapes. A Black woman as Matriarch was based on the idea that slavery reversed the gender roles of Black men and Black women. Some Black women have embraced the Matriarch image, reconfigured it, and represented it as the Strong Black Woman persona. This reconfigured image represents self-sufficiency, independence, and obligatory service for solving the problems of Black families and the Black community. However, a “culture of dissemblance” has developed in which Black women are apparently open and strong when relating to others, while in actuality they are overburdened and resigned to a culture of silence around their inner selves, including their experiences with sexual assault. The authors conclude with suggestions for culturally sensitive therapeutic interventions for Black rape survivors. They advise service providers to encourage family and friends of survivors to take a stance that is supportive from the victim’s perspective. Service providers are also advised to understand that Black women may be slow to disclose their assaults in therapy because of oppressive images toward both Black women and Black men. Finally, service providers are urged to promote social support and activism by rape survivors. This, they suggest, enables rape to be framed as a Black community problem and disrupts the silence surrounding the issue.

Topics: Community attitudes/responses; myths/stereotypes; racial/ethnic differences

Fitzgerald, M.M., Danielson, C.K., Saunders, B., & Kilpatrick, D.G. (2007).Youth victimization: Implications for prevention, intervention, and public policy. The Prevention Researcher, 14, 3-7. [Posted August 2007]

Key Points: Policies and practices are needed to minimize the harm of youth victimization by encouraging assessment, targeted prevention, and treatment interventions.  

Abstract: The authors review national prevalence rates of youth victimization, including: sexual, emotional or physical abuse; witnessing domestic or community violence; property crime; and excessive punishment. They note gender and race/ethnicity differences in prevalence rates as well as mental health effects. Specific recommendations for assessing risk and resiliency factors as well as screening for victimization in clinical settings are given. The authors discuss the importance of targeted interventions for specific groups, and urge adoption of an ecological model. Finally, the authors discuss how public and organizational policies can help decrease the impact of victimization and increase the availability of supportive services for youth and their families.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; effects; medical response; prevalence; prevention; racial/ethnic differences

Gray, N. B., Palileo, G. J., & Johnson, G. D. (1993). Explaining rape victim blame: A test of attribution theory. Sociological Spectrum, 13, 377-392.

This study explored rape victim blaming attitudes among 1,177 college students by drawing upon two competing hypotheses within attribution theory; namely, “defensive attribution” and “need for control.” Students answered survey questionnaires measuring rape myths, previous sexual victimization, previous sexual aggression, risk taking behaviors, and additional questions concerning demographics and knowledge of rape prevention. The findings indicate that gender is the most significant predictor of rape victim blaming with females less likely to blame rape victims. Furthermore, risk taking and rape victim blaming were negatively associated among females whereas among males, previous sexual aggression and risk taking were more likely to be associated with victim blaming. In contrast, males with previous nonsexual victimization experience, males of higher class standing, and males who had prior exposure to rape prevention knowledge were less likely to engage in victim blaming. Foreign students and nonwhite students were most accepting of rape myths. Implications for rape prevention are proposed.

Topics: College; myths/stereotypes; racial/ethnic differences; risk

Hanson, R., Kievit, L., Saunders, B., Smith, D., Kilpatrick, D., Resnick, H., & Ruggiero, K. (2003). Correlates of adolescent reports of sexual assault: Findings from the National Survey of Adolescents. Child Maltreatment, 8, 261-272.

Studies on the factors that lead to child disclosure of sexual abuse reveal mixed results. The purpose of this study was to determine which demographic variables and sexual abuse incident characteristics were related to disclosure. Another purpose of this study was to determine whether correlates of sexual abuse disclosure differed by gender and race/ethnicity. Data from 4,023 adolescents was obtained through a national probability telephone survey. Measures included penetration and nonpenetration sexual assault, relationship to the perpetrator, degree of life threat, physical injury, victim substance use, disclosure of sexual assault to anyone, and knowledge of any formal reports made regarding the sexual assault. Results indicated that 8.1% of respondent adolescents had experienced a sexual assault. Regarding disclosure, about two thirds of the victims reported that they had told someone else about the sexual assault and about one third of these instances had also been formally reported. For all adolescent victims, use of substances did not reduce the likelihood of disclosure, and victims assaulted by a relative were the most likely to disclose. Girls and European Americans were more likely to disclose than boys and African Americans, respectively. However, among European Americans, gender did not influence disclosure. On the other hand, African American females were 7 times more likely to disclose than African American males were. Also, for girls and European Americans only, sustaining an injury during the sexual assault reduced the likelihood of disclosure. While, for African Americans penetration assault was associated with disclosure, life threat was associated with disclosure for European Americans. Due to their low rates of disclosure, these results indicate that careful assessment of sexual assault among African American children and boys may be particularly important. Additional research investigating correlates of sexual assault for other ethnic groups (e.g., Asians, Hispanics, and Native Americans) is also suggested.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; disclosure; racial/ethnic differences

Hardin, M. (2002). Altering masculinities: The Spanish conquest and the evolution of the Latin American "machismo." International Journal of Sexuality & Gender Studies, 7, 1-22.

This article examines the construction of Latin American machismo. The author argues that machismo, a stereotype that emphasizes hypermasculinity, is a legacy of the Spanish Conquest, the Spanish conquistadors’ response to the indigenous two-spirit, and the conquistadors’ raping of indigenous women. Unlike in English colonialism, the Spanish Conquest was characterized by the need for slave labor and female mates. For business and progeny, therefore, sexuality was brought into the subjugation process and into the idea of machismo. Next, Spanish Catholicism also urged the repression of the conspicuously fluid sexualities and gender identities of indigenous peoples (e.g., the two-spirit or berdache social role). Notably, however, indigenous societies also evidenced sources of hypermasculinity. This is seen in the delineation between the active penetrator and passive receiver in assessing violations of male virility in homosexual activity. Next, the Spanish conquistadors contributed to the misogyny associated with machismo through the raping of indigenous women, their treatment as property, and the “traitorous” acts of la Malinche (Cortes’ translator and sex slave). Conquistadors’ actions served as a model of masculinity for indigenous males, redefining the indigenous male’s conception of masculinity to fit that of the dominating culture. Finally, the roots of machismo can also be traced from the association of class with masculinity. Since Spanish females were rare in the Americas, the mates with the greatest status were of the fairest skin. Thus, machismo’s association with characteristics such as strength, bravery, and virility may be indicative of a successful mating strategy.

Topics: Male-female relations; myths/stereotypes; racial/ethnic differences

 Heise, L., Ellsberg, M., & Gottemoeller, M. (1999). Ending violence against women. Population Reports, Series L, Number 11, 1-43.

This report provides an admirably thorough review of the various dimensions concerning violence against women across the globe. The authors begin by addressing the concept of gender-based violence, how health care providers can help, and what societal responses should entail in curbing the problem. The report discusses in detail the prevalence and ramifications of intimate partner abuse, sexual coercion, impact of violence on women’s reproductive health, threats to health and development, the role of health providers in recognizing and treating the effects of violence, and finally, an agenda for change. The report includes numerous charts presenting, for example, cross-cultural data on issues related to rates of approval of wife-beating and prevalence of forced first intercourse in various countries. The report also includes examples of posters used to educate women and increase awareness of the issues in different countries as well as several useful charts with instructions and guidelines for health care providers. This is an invaluable resource for anyone interested in understanding violence against women on a global level.

Topics: Community attitudes/responses; disclosure; effects; injury; male-female relations; marital rape; medical response; myths/stereotypes; perpetration; prevalence; prevention; racial/ethnic differences; risk; statistics; underserved populations; vulnerability

Heppner, M. J., Neville, H. A., Smith, K., Kivlighan, D. M., & Gershuny, B. S. (1999). Examining immediate and long-term efficacy of rape prevention programming with racially diverse college men. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 46, 16-26.

The authors investigated the short- and long-term (5-month) effectiveness of a theoretically driven, programmatic rape prevention intervention on a sample of primarily White and Black college men. A racially diverse sample was included, and the potential effectiveness of both a culturally relevant and a traditional "colorblind" intervention was assessed. In contrast to earlier investigations, which have consistently reported an overall rebound of scores at the follow-up assessment, results from a hierarchical cluster analysis indicated three patterns of treatment response: improving, deteriorating, and rebounding. Results also indicated that Black students in the culturally relevant treatment condition were more cognitively engaged in the intervention than their peers in the traditional treatment condition.

Topics: Prevention; racial/ethnic differences

Kennedy, M. A., & Gorzalka, B. B. (2002). Asian and non-Asian attitudes toward rape, sexual harassment, and sexuality. Sex Roles, 46, 227-238.

North American Asians demonstrate more conservative sexual attitudes and behaviors than other ethnic groups. Research findings examining the influence of Western culture upon Asian sexual attitudes are somewhat inconsistent. Also, previous studies have failed to investigate Asians’ attitudes toward coercive sexual behaviors. The present study was designed to compare Asian and non-Asian attitudes toward both sexually coercive and noncoercive behaviors. Male and female undergraduate students (n = 205 Asian, n = 195 non-Asian) from a Canadian university volunteered to participate in the study in exchange for course credit. Participants completed a self-report questionnaire that measured attitudes toward coercive and noncoercive sexual behaviors. For attitudes on coercive sexual behaviors, 11 agree/disagree items from Burt’s Rape Myth Acceptance Scale were used, as was the 19-item Sexual Harassment Attitude Scale. All items from both scales were presented in the text of the article. The Derogatis Sexual Functioning Inventory (30-items) was used to measure attitudes on noncoercive sexual behaviors. Results indicated that Asian students held more conservative sexual attitudes than non-Asian students. Asian students were also more tolerant of sexually harassing behaviors and rape myths than non-Asian students. Regardless of ethnicity, men were more tolerant of sexual harassment and rape myths than women. Though not as strong as the previous findings, the results did indicate that the longer a student had lived in Canada, the less tolerant of rape myths and sexual harassment he/she was. Overall, these results indicate that Asian students hold more conservative attitudes on noncoercive and coercive sexual behaviors. The generalizability of these results to diverse Asian ethnicities may be limited because 92% of the study participants identified themselves as Chinese.

Topics: Harassment; myths/stereotypes; racial ethnic/differences

Kuhn, J., Arellano, C., & Chavez, E. (1998). Correlates of sexual assault in Mexican American and White non-Hispanic adolescent males. Violence & Victims, 13, 11-20.

Psychosocial and emotional variables were assessed for a sample of 1,385 Mexican American and White non-Hispanic adolescent males. Among those sampled, 54 males reported being sexually assaulted one or more times. Adolescent male victims were on average more socially isolated, emotionally distressed, and socially maladjusted (e.g., they exhibited more behaviors such as lying and stealing). These males were also more likely to affiliate with deviant peers and to come from homes with substance use, compared to males who were not reporting sexual assault. Significant differences between Mexican American and White non-Hispanic assault victims were not found.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; male rape; racial/ethnic differences

Lira, L. R., Koss, M. P., & Russo, N. F. (1999). Mexican American women's definitions of rape and sexual abuse. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 21, 236-265.

This paper addresses the concept of rape from the perspective of Mexican American immigrant women living in America. It begins with an overview of cultural meanings of rape and sexual abuse and the impact thereof within an appreciation of cultural differences affected by religious norms, images of women, and notions of sexuality among Latinas. The study presented in this paper involved 17 Mexican American women living in Arizona who participated in four focus groups. Their discussions focused on issues pertaining to unwanted sexual contact. Definitions elicited from these discussions included notions of "rapto," "violacion,” and "abuso sexual." Furthermore, the women discussed child rape and abuse, adult rape and abuse, the causes of rape, wife rape, the causes of wife rape, and ultimately, the silence of victims. The intermingling of traditional and modern meanings of such concepts should not be underestimated nor easily overlooked when addressing the issue of rape among Latinas. Research, prevention, intervention, and treatment programs must therefore be sensitive toward culturally appropriate approaches to this issue and must be mindful of the language used to express the various experiences and perceptions in order to gage an accurate assessment of the prevalence of rape among Latinas. Due to the significance of silence and the rape experiences reported by the participants, it is very likely that underreporting is a grave reality among Latinas.

Topics: Male-female relations; marital rape; racial/ethnic differences; underserved populations

Lottes, I. L., & Kuriloff, P. J. (1994). Sexual socialization differences by gender, Greek membership, ethnicity, and religious background. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 18, 203-219.

Examined how parental and peer sexual socialization influences are related to gender, ethnicity, religious background, and college membership in a fraternity or sorority. A sample of 557 college students (52% male, 48% female) including 76% White, 13% Asian, and 7% Black, completed questionnaires both as entering first year students and as seniors. Compared to women, men continued to experience a more permissive sexual socialization from both parents and peers. Fraternity and sorority membership was associated with a more permissive socialization from peers but not parents. Asian students reported a more restrictive sexual socialization than Blacks or Caucasians. With respect to religious background, there were no significant differences in peer sexual socialization; however, Jewish participants reported a significantly more permissive parental sexual socialization than did Catholic and Protestant participants.

Topics: Athletes/fraternities; college; racial/ethnic differences

Maxwell, C. D., Robinson, A. L. & Post, L. A. (2003a). The impact of race on the adjudication of sexual assault and other violent crimes. Journal of Criminal Justice, 31, 523-538.

Some scholars have proposed that, among violent crimes, sexual assault is handled in a tolerant and biased manner. The purpose of this study was to ascertain the differential adjudication of violent crimes, with particular emphasis on sexual assault as it pertains to race. A subsample of 41,151 cases was selected from the National Pretrial Reporting Program, consisting of adult males charged with murder or attempted murder, sexual assault, robbery, or assault. The authors ran a logistic regression model to test a “leniency hypothesis” that, among violent crimes, sexual assault was given the most leniency, and among racial groups, Whites were given the most leniency. Results revealed limited support for either assertion, finding judicial decisions to be modified by crime category and race. On average, men charged with sexual assault were treated more leniently than those charged with murder but were treated more severely than those charged with assault or robbery. For crimes other than sexual assault, Whites were found to receive more clemency than minorities. The authors contend this finding indicates the devalued status of minorities in general and of female minority victims in particular. The authors conclude that a number of additional factors require consideration (e.g., socioeconomic status, employment, relationship of offender to victim, level of victim cooperation, and victim characteristics) in order to fully understand the adjudication of sexual assault cases as they intersect with race.

Topics: Legal responses; perpetration; racial/ethnic differences

Nagel, B., Matsuo, H., McIntyre, K. P., & Morrison, N. (2005). Attitudes toward victims of rape: Effects of gender, race, religion, and social class. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20, 725-737.

Previous studies examining attitudes toward victims of rape have often been limited by being incorporated into larger studies, instead of focusing exclusively on attitudes, and have relied mostly on college-aged samples. This study, however, randomly sampled 1,000 residents from St. Louis, Missouri resulting in 220 respondents completing the Attitude Toward Rape Victim Scale (ARVS) along with a demographics questionnaire. Results yielded significant group differences that seem to suggest the relationship between race and socioeconomic status concerning attitudes toward rape victims is complex. Moreover, age, sex, educational level, and income were found to be significant predictors in determining attitudes toward victims. For example, females and individuals with higher levels of education were more likely to express sympathetic attitudes toward victims of rape, in contrast to the attitudes expressed by older individuals in this study.

Topics: Community attitudes/responses; myths/stereotypes; racial/ethnic differences

Rozee, P. D. (1993). Forbidden or forgiven? Rape in a cross-cultural perspective. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 17, 499-514.

This article presents a conceptual framework in order to study rape cross-culturally. The model considers non-normative rape as well as illicit, uncondoned genital contact, normative rape, and socially condoned rape in a sample of 35 non-industrial societies. This study shows that if the occurrence of rape is focused on the female's choice rather than on the illicit, societally prohibited rape, then a much different picture of rape across cultures is presented. The research implies that rape is clearly separate from female sexuality. The presence of both non-normative and normative rapes in the majority of societies depicts rape as regulated rather than prohibited. Societal views of rape in the United States are discussed, as is its worldwide status.

Topics: Community attitudes/responses; marital rape; racial/ethnic differences

Shelton, J. N., & Chavous, T. M. (1999). Black and White college women's perceptions of sexual harassment. Sex Roles, 40, 593-615.

This study examines how racial factors may influence college women's perceptions about sexual harassment. The authors examined whether 46 Black and 89 White women perceived unsolicited sexual behavior between Black women and Black men differently from such behavior between Black women and White men. The data suggest that sexual harassment between Black women and men is regarded as inconsequential as compared to sexual behavior between Black women and White men. The findings are examined with regard to the importance of studying the experience of sexual harassment for women of color.

Topics: College; harassment; racial/ethnic differences

Scott, C. S., Lefley, H. P., & Hicks, D. (1993). Potential risk factors for rape in three ethnic groups. Community Mental Health Journal, 29, 133-141.

The authors discuss the frequency of risk factors detected in a study of sexual assault among African American, Hispanic, and non-Hispanic White women during treatment at a major rape treatment center. A total of 881 victims were screened: 449 were negative for observable risk factors while the remaining 432 were positive for risk factors. These risk factors included: previous history of rape or incest, mental disability, tourist or visitor status, and homelessness. Results suggest that ethnic groups vary significantly in these categories. It is suggested that economic and cultural variables may affect rape risk factors and should be taken into account when planning rape prevention programs.

Topics: Prevention; racial/ethnic differences; risk; survivors

Short, L. M., McMahon, P. M., Chervin, D. D., Shelley, G. A., Lezin, N., Sloop, K. S., et al. (2000). Survivors' identification of protective factors and early warning signs for intimate partner violence. Violence Against Women, 6, 272-285.

This study proposed hypotheses concerning factors that may place women at risk for an abusive relationship, the potential early warning signs for physical partner violence, and the potential protective factors for cessation of violence once it has begun. Questions addressed women in violent sexual relationships: reasons women remain in abusive relationships, factors that may end the violence, barriers, potential early warning signs, resources, racial differences, and location differences. Urban and rural African American and White women (N = 168) in five US regions were recruited for 22 focus groups. Participants were between the ages of 18–50 years old, had been exposed to physical violence in intimate relationships, and were free of violence for at least 6 months at the time of the study. Similarities were found among all groups in their experiences of intimate partner violence. Furthermore, women in the focus groups stated that once violence began within their relationships, it escalated over time. The authors suggest implications for intervention. For example, the information gleaned from the participants may be informative to institutions that are active in removing women from violent relationships. Particularly, three areas of prevention implications were discussed. These include: the need for awareness in identifying early warning signs of intimate partner violence, the significance of family abuse history, and the need to educate adolescents – especially young girls – prior to the development of any intimate relationships.

Topics: Male-female relations; prevention; racial/ethnic differences; risk; survivors

Tjaden, P., & Thoennes, N. (2000a). Extent, nature, and consequences of intimate partner violence: Findings from the National Violence Against Women Survey (NCJ 181867). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice.

This report presents findings from the National Violence Against Women (NVAW) Survey on the extent, nature, and consequences of intimate partner violence in the United States. The survey compares victimization rates among 16,000 women and men, specific racial groups, Hispanics and non-Hispanics, and same-sex and opposite-sex cohabitants. It also examines risk factors associated with intimate partner violence, the rate of injury among rape and physical assault victims, injured victims' use of medical services, and victims' involvement with the justice system. (*ADHS funded agencies can request a copy of this report by contacting the RPEP office. The report can also be obtained directly from publications section of the National Institute of Justice website: http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/.)

Topics: Legal responses; male rape; racial/ethnic differences; risk

Tjaden, P., & Thoennes, N. (2000b). Full report of the prevalence, incidence, and consequences of violence against women: Findings from the National Violence Against Women Survey (NCJ 183781). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice.

This report presents findings from the NVAW Survey on the prevalence and incidence of rape, physical assault, and stalking; the rate of injury among rape and physical assault victims; and injured victims' use of medical services. Among the many findings the authors indicate that: (1) 17.6% of all women surveyed said they had survived a completed or attempted rape at some time in their life, 54% of these women were under 18 when they were first raped. (2) 2.2% of men and 8.1% of women reported being stalked at some time in their life. (3) American Indian/Alaska Native women were significantly more likely than African American women, White women, or mixed-race women to report being raped. (4) Those women who reported they were raped prior to 18 years of age were twice as likely to report another rape as an adult. (5) Those women who reported that they were stalked prior to 18 were seven times more likely to indicate that they were stalked as an adult. (6) Women experience more intimate partner violence than men do. (7) 64.0 % of women vs. 16.2 % of men experience intimate partner violence (e.g., rape, physical assault, and/or stalking). (8) Women (31.5%) are much more likely than men (16.1%) to be injured during an assault. (9) When the perpetrator is a current or former intimate partner, the risk of injury to a woman increases. The authors discuss the findings in terms of their importance to intervention planners, policymakers, and legislators, as well as the criminal justice and public health communities. (*ADHS funded agencies can request a copy of this report by contacting the RPEP office. The report can also be obtained directly from publications section of the National Institute of Justice website: http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/.)

Topics: Prevalence; racial/ethnic differences; stalking

West, C. M., & Rose, S. (2000). Dating aggression among low income African American youth: An examination of gender differences and antagonistic beliefs. Violence Against Women, 6, 470-494.

The authors investigated the prevalence of aggression inflicted and sustained in dating relationships for 171 low income African American 16–24 year olds. Survey data revealed that more women were victims of choking, attempted forced intercourse, and hurt feelings. As perpetrators, more women reported making threats, throwing objects, and hitting their partner. However, men perpetrated more serious sexual and psychological aggression, including forced breast fondling, attempted forced intercourse, and making a partner feel inferior and degrading her. Women victims of sexual aggression, when compared to nonvictims, expressed more agreement with adversarial sexual beliefs regarding male-female relationships. More than one-third of the participants endorsed antagonistic beliefs concerning Black male-female relationships. Suggestions for intervention are presented.

Topics: Male-female relations; racial/ethnic differences

Wyatt, G. E. (1992). The sociocultural context of African American and White American women's rape. Journal of Social Issues, 48, 77-91.

This article examines cultural and ethnic factors affecting women's reactions and adjustments to sexual assault. Fifty-five African American and White American women (aged 18–36 years), reporting 146 incidents of attempted and completed rapes, were interviewed. There were no significant ethnic differences in the prevalence of rape. African Americans in this sample were less likely to disclose sexual assault. Women in both groups experienced lasting psychological effects, including emotional distress connected to the abuse, chronic depression, mistrust of people, men in particular, and specific fears.

Topics: Effects; racial/ethnic differences; prevalence; survivors

Updated 08/01/07