Abbey, A. (2005). Lessons learned and unanswered questions about sexual assault perpetration. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20(1), 39-42.

This article provides a brief overview of central elements characteristic of research on sexual assault perpetration. Most importantly, Abbey discusses the degree to which perpetrators actually “blend into society and cannot be easily pigeon holed” (p. 40) and highlights the focus of prevention programs that target victims rather than perpetrators. Given some of the drawbacks of interviews and questionnaires, the author proposes computer-assisted interviews (CASI) as the methodology with the most potential for providing accurate estimates of sexual assault prevalence and perpetration.

Topics: Perpetration; prevalence; prevention

Anderson, L., Stoelb, M. P., Duggan, P., Hieger, B., Kling, K. H., & Payne, J. P. (1998). The effectiveness of two types of rape prevention programs in changing the rape-supportive attitudes of college students. Journal of College Student Development, 39, 131-142.

Examined the effectiveness of two rape prevention programs that aimed to change rape-supportive attitudes among college students. As such, 215 undergraduates were assigned to one of three approaches: an interactive "talk show" intervention, a videotaped intervention, or a nontreatment control group. Rape-supportive attitudes were measured utilizing rape myth acceptance and attitudes toward rape scales. Measurements were obtained before the interventions, at posttest (immediately following the intervention), and 7 weeks after the intervention. Results indicate that both interventions reduced rape-supportive attitudes at posttest, but attitudes approached pre-intervention levels by 7 weeks. Implications for future rape prevention interventions are discussed.

Topics: Curriculum; evaluation; prevention

Anderson, L. A., & Whiston, S. C. (2005). Sexual assault education programs: A meta-analytic examination of their effectiveness. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29, 374-388.

The authors conducted an analysis of the effectiveness of sexual assault education programs on college campuses. The study was unique because it examined a wide variety of outcomes and explored the impact of several program factors on program effectiveness. Meta-analyses were conducted with 69 studies and 102 treatment interventions. The results showed that sexual assault programs influenced the most positive change in rape knowledge. The programs had a small, but positive influence on rape attitudes. They had a smaller impact on behavioral intentions, rape-related attitudes, and incidence of sexual assault and no impact on rape empathy and rape awareness behaviors. Several factors were associated with program effectiveness including length of the intervention, type of presenter, program content, type of audience, and gender of audience. Implications for practice and research are presented.

Topics: College; curriculum; evaluation; prevention

Avery-Leaf, S., Cascardi, M., O’Leary, K. D., & Cano, A. (1997). Efficacy of a dating violence prevention program on attitudes justifying aggression. Journal of Adolescent Health, 21, 11-17.

This paper discusses the value of a five-session dating violence prevention curriculum by comparing pre- and posttreatment differences in attitudes concerning dating violence among 193 high school students. Students taking health classes were randomly assigned either to the treatment condition or the control condition. Students in the treatment condition were exposed to a communication skills-based violence prevention program designed to address courtship aggression as a social and psychological issue. The Modified Conflict Tactics scale (MCTS), the Justification of Interpersonal Violence questionnaire (AIV), the Justification of Dating Jealousy and Violence scale (JDV), and the Social Desirability scale (SDS) were administered to all participants. Results revealed that within the treatment group there were significant changes in attitudes concerning dating aggression. Specifically, attitudes concerning justification of male-to-female dating aggression and female-to-male dating aggression were affected in that treatment subjects were less accepting of dating violence during an argument at the postprogram evaluation stage. The authors suggest that more sensitive measures of attitudes concerning dating violence (i.e., AIV and JDV) may be necessary since one-half to two-thirds of the students during the preprogram assessment already felt that physical violence is never justifiable during an argument. Overall, changes in attitudes among participants suggest that this type of curriculum may be a useful tool for prevention of dating aggression.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; curriculum; evaluation; prevention

Basile, K. C. (2003). Implications of public health for policy on sexual violence. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 989, 446-463.

Provides a public health perspective on sexual violence, and describes a response based in public health policy. Details a rationale for treating sexual violence as a public health issue, and then outlines the public health approach to dealing with health issues. Discussing how public health intervention should be timed, targeted, and can be fit into an ecological approach. Shows how current prevention efforts to end sexual violence fit within the public health model, and identifies gaps in the efforts. Describes the STOP IT NOW! child sexual abuse education program, and reflects on other opportunities for prevention.

Topics: Prevention; theory

Basile, K. C., Lang, K. S., Bartenfeld, T. A., & Clinton-Sherrod, M. (2005). Evaluability assessment of the rape prevention and education program: Summary of findings and recommendations. Journal of Women’s Health, 14(3), 201-207.

This article provides a baseline evaluation of the CDC’s Rape Prevention and Education (RPE) Program by drawing upon the evaluability assessment approach, as designed by Wholey (1979) and Rutman (1980). As such, the assessment discussed herein measured goals and objectives of the RPE grant, the use of funds, and barriers impacting the implementation of the grant. The primary goal of the program includes the reduction of sexual assault rates as initiated through educational and awareness-enhancing programs. Funds were found to be most often allocated toward trainings and informational materials, with prevention programs and evaluation activities also prominent. The barrier cited by 87% of respondents centered around community reactions to issues of sexual violence. Recommendations highlighted performance measures and systematic data collection, as well as technical assistance, training, strategic planning, and evaluability.

Topics: Evaluation; prevention; victim services

Benson, D., Charlton, C., & Goodhart, F. (1992). Acquaintance rape on campus: A literature review. College Health, 40, 157-165.

This article provides an overview of several central aspects relevant to acquaintance or date rape on American college campuses. It addresses the definition of acquaintance rape, early research on the topic, the cultural context of rape, legal issues concerning acquaintance rape as a crime and as a campus disciplinary matter, adolescent attitudes and sexual socialization, the relationship between alcohol and sexual assault, characteristics of assailants, vulnerability factors among women, survivor responses, and institutional responses of colleges. The authors conclude by proposing several strategies that colleges can follow to increase awareness and prevention of acquaintance rape on campuses.

Topics: Alcohol; college; prevention; survivors; vulnerability

Berkowitz, A. D. (2002). Fostering men's responsibility for preventing sexual assault. In P. A. Schewe (Ed.), Preventing violence in relationships: Interventions across the lifespan (pp. 163-196). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

The author writes that for effective sexual assault prevention men must look at their own potential for violence as well as taking a stand against the violence of other men. He further asserts that men must take responsibility for preventing sexual assault because most sexual violence is perpetrated by men against women, children, and other men. Although only a minority of men are sexually violent, all men are part of the culture/environment that allows other men to perpetrate violence. The chapter offers an overview of issues involved in working with men to encourage taking the responsibility for sexual assault prevention. The chapter also suggests a philosophy for rape prevention programming, provides a model for prevention education programs, reviews promising programs and strategies, and includes recommendations for future program development. The chapter's main focus is on the prevention of sexual assault perpetrated by men or boys in college and high school settings.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; college; curriculum; prevention; male-female relations

Berkowitz, A. D. (2003). Applications of social norms theory to other health and social justice issues. In H. W. Perkins (Ed.), The social norms approach to preventing school and college age substance abuse: A handbook for educators, counselors, and clinicians (chap. 16). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

This chapter reviews theoretical assumptions of a social norms approach, assesses the relevance of the theory to health and social justice issues, and provides examples of social norms interventions for sexual assault prevention for men, second-hand effects of binge drinking, and anti-bias programming, as well as eating problems among women. The author operationalizes social norms theory as situations in which individuals incorrectly perceive the attitudes and/or behaviors of peers and other community members to be different from their own. The author posits that social norms theory can be used for interventions that correct these misperceptions by revealing the actual, healthier norms. Using social norms approach will have a beneficial effect on most individuals, who will either reduce their participation in potentially problematic behavior or be encouraged to engage in protective, healthy behaviors that are congruent with actual norms instead of misperceived norms.

Topics: Alcohol; male-female relations; prevention

Berson, M. (2006). Finding ways to change behaviour. In 2006 NetSafe Symposium - Cybersafety & Security Online (pp. 44-46). NetSafe. [Posted September 2006.]

Key Points: Current efforts in internet safety education for children are effective at increasing knowledge, but ineffective in changing behavior.

Abstract: This document is part of the published proceedings of an internet safety and security conference held in Wellington, New Zealand, in July of 2006. The document is a transcript of a plenary given by Dr. Michael Berson of the University of South Florida, where he comments on current efforts to provide internet safety education to children and future directions.

Evaluated efforts of well-funded internet safety education programs have been able to demonstrate an increase in knowledge, but none have demonstrated a significant change in behavior. Current efforts and legislation promoting traditional criminal justice models of behavior prevention are unlikely to succeed. There is too much emphasis on restricting children's access to pornography. Future efforts must get children to be critical consumers of the vast volumes of information they have access to. The critical question educators should be trying to answer is, "...how do children discern fact from fantasy?"

This document is available online. Link to the individual sections of the published proceedings from this conference.

Topics: Media/internet; prevention

Binder, R. L., & McNiel, D. E. (1987). Evaluation of a school-based sexual abuse prevention program: Cognitive and emotional effects. Child Abuse & Neglect, 11, 497-506.

A 2-hour sexual abuse prevention workshop was presented to 88 children, 60 parents, and 12 teachers. Pretest-posttest questionnaires were administered to assess children's level of emotional distress (ED) and knowledge about sexual abuse prevention. The teachers completed questionnaires about participants’ level of ED approximately 2 weeks after the program. Comparison of participants’ knowledge before and after the program showed increases in knowledge about strategies for dealing with potential abuse. Additionally, children reported that the program made them feel safer and more confident in their ability to protect themselves.

Topics: Evaluation; prevention

Brecklin, L. R., & Ullman, S. E. (2005). Self-defense or assertiveness training and women’s responses to sexual attacks. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20, 738-762.

In this study, the authors examine the impact self-defense training potentially has on women’s responses to sexual assault. The sample included 3,187 undergraduate females from 32 colleges who completed a self-report questionnaire (National Survey of Intergender Relationships). Students were asked about experiences pertaining to unwanted sexual contact, sexual coercion, attempted and/or completed rape, assault characteristics, their perception concerning their victimization experiences, and postassault experiences. Analyses compared women with preassault training to women without any reported self-defense or assertiveness training prior to their assault experiences. Findings revealed that students who had participated in training were more likely to be less scared and more angry during their assault than women who had not had any training. The former were also more likely to report success at stopping the offender. Interestingly, though, the students with preassault trainings were also more likely to undervalue the extent of their resistance. The authors postulate ways in which such findings may improve prevention programs designed to enhance women’s resistance strategies while also recognizing that the origin of sexual violence still rests with males.

Topics: Avoidance/resistance; prevention; survivors

Budin, L. E., & Johnson, C. F. (1989). Sex abuse prevention programs: Offenders’ attitudes about their efficacy. Child Abuse and Neglect, 13, 77-87.

This study assessed sex abuse prevention education methods for children by drawing upon input from 72 convicted sex abusers at a correctional facility in Ohio. Perpetrators were surveyed concerning how they approached children, how they solicited children as victims, how they prevented children from reporting, and how they would prevent the sexual abuse of children. Results revealed that incestuous perpetrators used similar tactics as non-incestuous perpetrators to gain the trust of children. However, certain methods were used more frequently by incestuous perpetrators than non-incestuous perpetrators. For example, non-incestuous perpetrators were more likely to give their victims toys, to use the victim’s friend, and to acquire victims who had been previously victimized by the perpetrator’s friends. Overall, perpetrators tended to focus their tactics on children who were described as passive, troubled, lonely, and from broken homes. The perpetrators’ perceptions of the efficacy of sex abuse prevention methods were also assessed. The perpetrators in this study suggest that children should be taught to report abuse, to say “no” to assailants, to be educated about proper handling of their genitalia, and to refrain from getting into cars with strangers. While there are significant limitations to this type of study, input from abusers may provide useful information for strengthening child abuse prevention programs.

Topics: Perpetration; prevention; vulnerability

Campbell, R., Dorey, H., Naegeli, M., Grubstein, L. K., Bennett, K. K., Bonter, F., et al. (2004). An empowerment evaluation model for sexual assault programs: Empirical evidence of effectiveness. American Journal of Community Psychology, 34, 251-262.

This paper describes the Sexual Assault and Rape Prevention (SARP) Evaluation Project that was designed to provide evaluation training and consultation to all state-funded rape prevention and victim services programs in Michigan. The SARP project was a community-based collaboration that utilized an empowerment evaluation approach. A review of the empowerment evaluation literature is provided and effectiveness of the SARP project is examined. Results suggested that the evaluation model was effective in assisting the majority of rape prevention and victim services programs develop, implement, and sustain evaluation activities. Limitations of an empowerment evaluation approach are discussed.

Topics: Evaluation; prevention; victim services

Campbell, R., & Wasco, S. M. (2005). Understanding rape and sexual assault: 20 years of progress and future directions. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20, 127-131.

This article provides an overview of twenty years of research pertaining to sexual assault, spanning from the initial studies that determined estimates of prevalence to more recent studies focusing on vicarious trauma of rape victim advocates, therapists, and researchers. The authors discuss the significance of PTSD among survivors of sexual assault, the importance of prevention and intervention programs, and the methodological tools – whether quantitative or qualitative – that have become more predominant in recent years in addressing sexual assault and trauma.

Topics: Community attitudes/responses; prevention; theory

Chisholm, J. F. (2006). Cyberspace violence against girls and adolescent females. Annals of New York Academy of Science, 1087, 74-89. [Posted April 2007.]

Key Points: Youth are often not psychologically equipped to protect themselves from bullying and exploitation online. Most adults are not aware of the risks to which young people are exposed through electronic communication.

Abstract: This article summarized types of “cyberviolence” (online bullying and other forms of exploitation). The ability to send messages anonymously and instantly through text messaging or email has created a new set of potential benefits and dangers for young people. Online culture evolves rapidly and can vary dramatically by age group. Adults who are not as technologically savvy as youth may not be aware of bullying and other damaging online behavior and thus not able to protect young people from online dangers.

Several projects working to prevent or mitigate victimization are presented. The author recommended that research be done to examine the effects of online socializing on adolescent development, and how the Internet continues to change patterns of communication. She also recommended training for mental health practitioners who work with youth to recognize signs of online victimization.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; media/Internet; prevention

Close, S. (2005). Dating violence prevention in middle school and high school youth. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 18, 2-9.

This paper addresses the current need to examine and prevent dating violence among middle school and high school adolescents. The author outlines the problem of perpetration and victimization as resulting from issues such as poor conflict resolution and social immaturity. Furthermore, the incidence of dating violence, the etiology of abusive behavior, risk factors, gender differences, and prevention/intervention programs are discussed thereby highlighting the significance of dating violence among adolescents as a growing public health concern.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; male-female relations; prevention

Davis, T. L., & Liddell, D. L. (2002). Getting inside the house: The effectiveness of a rape prevention program for college fraternity men. Journal of College Student Development, 43, 35-50.

Studies have shown that the prevalence of acquaintance rape and date rape is much higher than that of stranger rape. While studies on perpetrators of stranger rape have suggested psychopathology as the cause of their actions, according to sociocultural theory, perpetrators of acquaintance rape and date rape may be motivated by gender role ideology. The authors of this study investigated whether sex role socialization modifies males’ attitudes and beliefs condoning rape. A total of 90 fraternity men (between the ages of 18–23 years old), attending a large college in the Midwest, were asked to participate in this study. The participants were divided into three groups: (a) a control group, (b) a group that attended a traditional date rape prevention program, and (c) a group that attended a program aimed at identifying and addressing the gender role ideals of the participants. Each group attended one 90-minute session and was given a pretest, posttest, and a follow-up posttest. Results indicate that both of the treatment groups exhibited lower acceptance of rape myths and an increased understanding of coercion and consent; with the group that attended the traditional date rape prevention program retaining the most information about consent/coercion after six weeks. Gender role conflict was significantly associated with rape myth acceptance. Future research might investigate whether more long-term rape prevention program regimens would prove to have longer lasting effects on gender role ideals and attitudes contributing to acquaintance rape and date rape perpetration.

Topics: Athletes/fraternities; myths/stereotypes; prevention

Dombrowski, S. C., LeMasney, J. W., Ahia, C. E., & Dickson, S. A. (2004). Protecting children from online sexual predators: Technological, psychoeducational, and legal considerations. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 35, 65-73.

The authors highlight the need for professional psychologists, educators, parents, and other individuals who care for children and youth to increase their understanding of the risks of online sexual solicitation. The aim of the article is to increase awareness and promote the protection of youth from sexual predators who use the Internet. The first section is an overview of predator and victim characteristics and grooming behaviors. The second is a discussion of how predators use the Internet for sexual solicitation. The third section is a description of technological and psychoeducational methods for preventing online solicitation. The conclusion presents guidelines and legal considerations for practicing psychologists.

Topics: Media/internet; perpetration; prevention

Feltey, K., Ainslie, J., & Geib, A. (1991). Sexual coercion attitudes among high school students: The influence of gender and rape education. Youth and Society, 23, 229-250

The perception of sexual coercion as justifiable under certain conditions and what variables affect these attitudes is the focus of this study. The sample was drawn from a high school population. Pre- and posttests were administered to students who attended a date rape prevention (DRP) presentation. The student's demographic information was gathered and a questionnaire was given dealing with the subject’s sexual activity. This study suggests that date rape prevention programs should include the dynamics of gender socialization, the structured inequality between men and women, and the interrelationship between sex and violence. In addition, such awareness should be developed early in the adolescents’ lives.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; curriculum; prevention

Fisher, B. S., Cullen, F. T., & Daigle, L. E. (2005). The discovery of acquaintance rape: The salience of methodological innovation and rigor. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20, 493-500.

Research on sexual victimization over the past two decades has elucidated the prevalence of nonstranger rape (i.e., marital rape, acquaintance rape, and date rape). Central to this development has been the use of behaviorally specific questions on surveys administered to women in numerous studies – as briefly reviewed herein by the authors. In the face of such research, the authors also question how best to implement prevention strategies concerning women’s sexual victimization by nonstrangers. They focus on three areas: lifestyle patterns as examined by routine activities theory, the need to educate women without placing blame on them, and the recognition that evidence confirming which prevention strategies are effective has been, for the most part, inconclusive across studies.

Topics: Prevalence; prevention

Fisher, B. S., Sloan, J. J., Cullen, F. T., & Lu, C. (1998). Crime in the ivory tower: The level and sources of student victimization. Criminology, 36, 671-710.

Using telephone interviews designed after the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), the authors collected data on criminal victimizations experienced by college students at twelve institutions on and off campus during the 1993–94 academic year. Drawing upon the lifestyle-routine activities approach, the authors collected information concerning student demographics, proximity to crime, exposure to crime, target attractiveness, and lack of capable guardianship. Results indicate that risk of property victimization was enhanced by proximity to crime, target attractiveness, exposure, and lack of guardianship. The recreational use of drugs and high levels of partying at night on campus were the most significant predictors of violent victimization. The authors conclude by suggesting that crime prevention strategies should be informed by such research and could prove useful in reducing crime experienced by college students.

Topics: College; risk; prevention; vulnerability

Fitzgerald, M.M., Danielson, C.K., Saunders, B., & Kilpatrick, D.G. (2007).Youth victimization: Implications for prevention, intervention, and public policy. The Prevention Researcher, 14, 3-7. [Posted August 2007]

Key Points: Policies and practices are needed to minimize the harm of youth victimization by encouraging assessment, targeted prevention, and treatment interventions.  

Abstract: The authors review national prevalence rates of youth victimization, including: sexual, emotional or physical abuse; witnessing domestic or community violence; property crime; and excessive punishment. They note gender and race/ethnicity differences in prevalence rates as well as mental health effects. Specific recommendations for assessing risk and resiliency factors as well as screening for victimization in clinical settings are given. The authors discuss the importance of targeted interventions for specific groups, and urge adoption of an ecological model. Finally, the authors discuss how public and organizational policies can help decrease the impact of victimization and increase the availability of supportive services for youth and their families.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; effects; medical response; prevalence; prevention; racial/ethnic differences

Fonow, M., Richardson, L., & Wemmerus, V. A. (1992). Feminist rape education: Does it work? Gender & Society, 6, 108-121.

This article begins with an assessment of attitudes and beliefs about rape, specifically as they pertain to college students. It addresses attitudinal factors (i.e., rape myths, rape blame, gender-role conservatism, and adversarial sexual beliefs) and sexism and racism as they culturally support rape myths. The study presented in this article was designed to examine these myths as well as to examine the impact of rape-education intervention strategies on college campuses. Using fourteen classes of Sociology 101 students, the researchers divided 582 students into three treatment conditions. The first was exposed to a live rape-education workshop. The second watched a video of the workshop. The third served as the control group. Results indicated that women were more knowledgeable about rape than men, were less likely to engage in victim-blaming, and were less accepting of adversarial sexual beliefs and gender-role conservatism. Results also revealed that attitudinal changes were apparent in both men and women. In addition, these changes were impacted by a feminist approach to rape education in that students learned that rapes are more likely to take place in a familiar setting, to be perpetrated by someone familiar to the victim, and to serve as a tool of social control over the woman.

Topics: College; curriculum; myths/stereotypes; prevention

Foubert, J. D., & Marriott, K. A. (1996). Overcoming men's defensiveness toward sexual assault programs: Learning to help survivors. Journal of College Student Development, 37, 470-472.

The authors state that men's defensiveness toward talking about rape functions to protect them from feeling guilty about the violent behavior of other men. The authors then describe a program designed to help men to overcome defensive reactions by identifying supportive roles for them that may help them to decrease both the prevalence and damaging effects of rape. The "How to Help a Sexual Assault Survivor" program consists of peer educators who encourage men to help survivors by listening to them, believing what they say happened, and accepting the survivor's decisions. Additionally, men are urged to resist the temptation to ask the survivor for details about the rape and to avoid suggestions of further violence. The initial results of the program appear to be positive. In a pilot survey of 17 male college students, 65% reported that they were less likely to be sexually coercive after having seen the program.

Topics: Male-female relations; prevention

Foubert, J. D. (2000). The longitudinal effects of a rape-prevention program on fraternity men's attitudes, behavioral intent, and behavior. Journal of American College Health, 48, 158-163.

This study presents the results of 145 fraternity men from a mid-Atlantic university who were randomly selected to determine the results of a victim empathy-based rape prevention program presented by all-male sexual assault prevention peer educators. No evidence of change in sexually coercive behavior was found. Significant declines in rape myth acceptance and the likelihood of committing rape were found with program participants immediately following the intervention. At the 7-month follow-up the decrease in rape myth acceptance remained lower among program participants than within the control group.

Topics: Athletes/fraternities; curriculum; myths/stereotypes; prevention

Foubert, J. D. & Marriott, K. A. (1997). Effects of a sexual assault peer education program on men's belief in rape myths. Sex Roles, 36, 259-268.

This study looks at an all-male sexual assault peer education program that focuses on helping the survivor of sexual assault. The program of focus in this article resulted in a significant decrease in rape myth acceptance among fraternity pledges that persisted over time. The prevention program had the unexpected result of decreasing the likelihood of sexually coercive behaviors in both the experimental and control groups at posttest. The results in this study suggest that attitude changes among program participants may be long-lasting.

Topics: Athletes/fraternities; curriculum; myths/stereotypes; prevention

Foubert, J. D., & McEwen, M. K. (1998). An all-male rape prevention peer education program: Decreasing fraternity men's behavioral intent to rape. Journal of College Student Development, 39, 548-556.

The authors demonstrated that participation in an all-male rape prevention peer education program, intended to decrease fraternity men's behavioral intent to rape, led to significant post-program declines in rape myth acceptance and behavioral intent to rape among 155 fraternity men (88% White, mean age of 19.9 years, mostly sophomores and juniors). The participants were divided into either a pretested and posttested rape prevention program group, a posttested rape prevention program group, or an untreated control group. The authors assessed belief in rape myths using the Burt Rape Myth Acceptance Scale. They evaluated central route processing using a state measure. Finally, intent to rape was evaluated by means of Malamuth's (1981) study questions. Results were the same regardless of whether the subjects were pretested or not. The study supports the hypothesis that rape prevention programming is most effective in an all-male peer education format.

Topics: Athletes/fraternities; curriculum; myths/stereotypes; prevention

Graham, K., Leonard, K., Room, R., Wild, T., Pihl, R., Bois, C., & Single, E. (1998). Current directions in research on understanding and preventing intoxicated aggression. Addiction, 93, 659-676.

This paper provides an overview of some of the most salient areas of research concerning the complexities of the relationship between alcohol and aggression. It begins by outlining the range of research on intoxicated aggression and proceeds by addressing societal/cultural attitudes, expectations, and norms. Personal factors involved in intoxicated aggression are also discussed; for example, individual differences in aggressive predisposition and normative expectations. The authors then review research on the pharmacological effects of alcohol and drinking contexts. They ultimately propose intoxicated aggression as the interaction of pharmacological effects of alcohol consumption, individual differences, and contextual factors. The paper concludes by suggesting research possibilities for intervention strategies to prevent intoxicated aggression and violence.

Topics: Alcohol; risk; prevention

Gruber, J. E. (1998). The impact of male work environments and organizational policies on women's experiences of sexual harassment. Gender & Society, 12, 301-320.

This article reviews the organizational dynamics that engender hostility and sexual harassment of women according to three types of variables: women's cultural status (age and marital status), occupational and workplace sex ratios, and organizational policies and organizational procedures for dealing with sexual harassment problems. A sample of 1,990 Canadian women (mean age 34 years) who had worked within the past year were contacted by telephone and interviewed regarding their experiences with sexual harassment. Results indicate that the extent of contact with men was a key predictor of harassment including sexual comments, sexual categorical remarks, and sexual materials. Informational methods of harassment reduction were less successful than proactively oriented interventions. The authors conclude that organizations that take steps to directly address sexual harassment are more likely to be successful in curtailing the problem than those relying on awareness techniques.

Topics: Harassment; prevention

Hall, G. C. N. & Barongan, C. (1997). Prevention of sexual aggression: Sociocultural risk and protective factors. American Psychologist, 52, 5-14.

Physiological, cognitive, affective, and developmental sociocultural risk factors for perpetrating sexual aggression are identified. Feminine and multicultural socialization may serve as protective factors against these risk factors because both forms of socialization emphasize empathy and sexuality in the context of committed relationships. It is proposed that feminist and multicultural education across the developmental span may constitute methods of reducing and preventing the development of sexually aggressive behavior. However, feminist and multicultural approaches may have limited impact without greater acceptance within societal power structures, including psychology. The authors call for psychologists interested in reducing sexually aggressive behavior to become better informed and experienced with feminist and multicultural approaches. They also suggest that it may be time for all persons in society to become competent in multiple domains.

Topics: Prevention; risk

Hammond, W. R., Whitaker, D. J., Lutzker, J. R., Mercy, J., & Chin, P. M. (2006). Setting a violence prevention agenda at the centers for disease control and prevention. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 11, 112-199.

This article describes the role of the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in violence prevention and its current mission, organizational structure, research priorities and trends, and programs. The CDC applies the public health approach to different areas of violence prevention, including intimate partner violence, sexual violence, child maltreatment, youth violence, and suicide prevention. The Division of Violence Prevention focuses on applied research and technical assistance to community-based organizations. All violence objectives and projects are influenced by the CDC'S values in primary prevention, good science, public education, causal factors, and a vision for non-violent communities.

Topics: Prevention

Hanson, K. A., & Gidycz, C.A. (1993). Evaluation of a sexual assault prevention program. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 61, 1046-1052.

This article presents the results of a sexual assault prevention program evaluation. Female college students (N = 360) participated in the study; 181 were assigned to the treatment group and 165 were assigned to the control group. The results indicated that the program was effective in decreasing the incidence of sexual assault for women without a sexual assault history but was not effective in decreasing rates of sexual assault for women with sexual assault histories. Those participating in the treatment group reported decreases in dating behaviors found to be associated with acquaintance rape and increases in knowledge about sexual assault. Implications are discussed.

Topics: College; curriculum; evaluation; prevention

 Heise, L., Ellsberg, M., & Gottemoeller, M. (1999). Ending violence against women. Population Reports, Series L, Number 11, 1-43.

This report provides an admirably thorough review of the various dimensions concerning violence against women across the globe. The authors begin by addressing the concept of gender-based violence, how health care providers can help, and what societal responses should entail in curbing the problem. The report discusses in detail the prevalence and ramifications of intimate partner abuse, sexual coercion, impact of violence on women’s reproductive health, threats to health and development, the role of health providers in recognizing and treating the effects of violence, and finally, an agenda for change. The report includes numerous charts presenting, for example, cross-cultural data on issues related to rates of approval of wife-beating and prevalence of forced first intercourse in various countries. The report also includes examples of posters used to educate women and increase awareness of the issues in different countries as well as several useful charts with instructions and guidelines for health care providers. This is an invaluable resource for anyone interested in understanding violence against women on a global level.

Topics: Community attitudes/responses; disclosure; effects; injury; male-female relations; marital rape; medical response; myths/stereotypes; perpetration; prevalence; prevention; racial/ethnic differences; risk; statistics; underserved populations; vulnerability

Heppner, M. J, Humphrey, C. F., Hillenbrand-Gunn, T. L, & DeBord, K. A. (1995). The differential effects of rape prevention programming on attitudes, behavior, and knowledge. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 42, 508-518.

This study evaluates how program type affects the processing of rape prevention messages targeting, attitudes, knowledge, behaviors, and change. Participants (N = 258) were assigned to one of three conditions: 1) didactic-video program, 2) interactive drama intervention, or 3) nontreatment control. Results show that both the interactive drama and the didactic-video intervention were more effective than the control at altering men's rape myth acceptance at 1-month post intervention. Change, however, was not stable; both interventions had rebounding scores on rape attitudes. Participants in the interactive drama condition were more able to identify consent versus coercion and demonstrate differences on behavioral indicators.

Topics: Evaluation; prevention

Heppner, M. J., Neville, H. A., Smith, K., Kivlighan, D. M., & Gershuny, B. S. (1999). Examining immediate and long-term efficacy of rape prevention programming with racially diverse college men. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 46, 16-26.

The authors investigated the short- and long-term (5-month) effectiveness of a theoretically driven, programmatic rape prevention intervention on a sample of primarily White and Black college men. A racially diverse sample was included, and the potential effectiveness of both a culturally relevant and a traditional "colorblind" intervention was assessed. In contrast to earlier investigations, which have consistently reported an overall rebound of scores at the follow-up assessment, results from a hierarchical cluster analysis indicated three patterns of treatment response: improving, deteriorating, and rebounding. Results also indicated that Black students in the culturally relevant treatment condition were more cognitively engaged in the intervention than their peers in the traditional treatment condition.

Topics: Prevention; racial/ethnic differences

Himelein, M. J. (1999). Acquaintance rape prevention with high-risk women: Identification and inoculation. Journal of College Student Development, 40, 93-96.

A small, short-term intervention involving undergraduate women was conducted in two steps: identifying women at risk and then attempting to "inoculate" them against acquaintance rape. Six different risk characteristics were used to identify high risk women. The group consisted of five 90-minute meetings conducted weekly in the campus counseling center. The women reported a high degree of satisfaction, considerable learning, and the belief that they had learned a great deal of relevant and worthwhile information. A follow-up questionnaire indicated that knowledge about sexual assault had increased.

Topics: College; prevention; risk

Himelein, M., Vogel, R., & Wachowiak, D. (1994). Nonconsensual sexual experiences in pre-college women: Prevalence and risk factors. Journal of Counseling & Development, 72, 411-415.

This article discusses the need for education and prevention programs to target younger audiences (secondary school age) and to revise the counseling needs for college-age victims. The objective of the author's research is to profile pre-college women's history of consensual and nonconsensual sexual experiences. They also examine the occurrence of child sexual abuse and consensual sexuality activity as potential risk factors for sexual victimization in dating. Implications for counselors are discussed.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; prevalence; prevention; risk

Holcomb, D. R., Sarvela, P. D., Sondag, K. A., & Holcomb, L. H. (1993). An evaluation of a mixed-gender date rape prevention workshop. Journal of American College Health, 41, 159-164.

The authors used a randomized, posttest-only experimental design (the 25-item Date Rape Attitudes Survey) to compare the date-rape (DRP) attitudes of 163 university students exposed to a mixed-gender DRP workshop with the DRP attitudes of 168 students who were not exposed. Three hypotheses were tested with the following results: (1) men reported attitudes that were more tolerant of DRP than those of women (i.e., the men were more likely to condone DRP); (2) subjects in the control group reported attitudes that were more tolerant of DRP than those reported by subjects in the treatment group; and (3) men exhibited a greater effect from the program than did the women.

Topics: College; evaluation; prevention

Hollander, J. A. (2004). “I can take care of myself”: The impact of self-defense training on women’s lives. Violence Against Women, 10, 205-235.

The author examines how feminist self-defense classes positively impact women's lives not only by providing them with skills for reducing their risk of sexual assault, but also by enhancing their general sense of self confidence as well as their interactions with others. While there is a shortage of empirical evidence that self-defense classes actually do reduce a participant's risk of being sexually assaulted, circumstantial evidence indicates that such classes ought to be effective in reducing women’s fear and in improving their responses to violence. The current study was based on the results of surveys given to 36 women (mean age of 21 years) who had enrolled in two feminist self-defense classes taught over a 10-week period at a state university. The participants completed a survey before and after the self-defense class. As was hypothesized, the students felt more confident in their ability to prevent and avoid dangerous situations. Furthermore, they described additional improvements in their everyday lives; namely, the participants reported an improvement in their ability to interact with strangers, acquaintances, friends, employers, teachers, and intimates, as well as improvements in their feelings about their own bodies, their perceived self confidence, and their beliefs about men, women, and gender issues. The author suggests that the feminist self-defense classes transform women's lives regarding the fear of sexual assault, as well as transform their perception of their value in the world and their concept of gender. Hollander proposes that the lessons learned by participants concerning their everyday lives will indirectly reduce their likelihood of victimization by increasing their ability to prevent or respond to violence while positively impacting their overall sense of self and their place in the world as women.

Topics: Avoidance/resistance; prevention

Hollander, J. A. (2005). Challenging despair: Teaching about women’s resistance to violence. Violence Against Women, 11, 776-791.

This paper provides an interesting perspective on how to teach women about resistance to violence by focusing not merely on women’s victimization but rather, by emphasizing the role of resistance – whether verbal, physical, cognitive, or emotional. Hollander presents a discussion of specific readings as well as a discussion of the use of guest speakers and particular course assignments designed to integrate the theme of resistance into a course about violence against women. The purpose of this approach is to teach women about violence by focusing on resistance, thereby reducing fear, vulnerability, and despair that otherwise serve only to disempower women.

Topics: Avoidance/resistance; curriculum; prevention

Johnson, B. B. (1987). Sexual abuse prevention: A rural interdisciplinary effort. Child Welfare, 56, 165-173.

A preventative program was designed to prevent child sexual abuse. This four-part program was an interdepartmental collaboration between the social work department and the theater department of the University of South Dakota. The program consisted of community acceptance, training teachers, production of the play "The Bubbylonian Encounter,” and classroom follow-up. Teachers were trained on the problem of sexual abuse and how to address these issues. The play "The Bubbylonian Encounter” was presented with audience participation to teach children about sexual abuse. Social work students and guidance counselors met with the students within one week of the play as a follow-up to the issues raised in the production. Evaluation of the program is suggested.

Topics: Prevention

Katz, J. & Lang, J. (2003). Building a "big tent" approach to working with men. Family Violence Prevention Fund [On-line]. Available: http://www.endabuse.org/bpi/discussion1/Discussion1-long.pdf [Posted September 2006.]

Key Points: Effective gender violence prevention requires an inclusive approach that builds broad coalitions.

Abstract: This paper makes a case for a "big tent" approach to gender violence prevention. Instead of focusing simply on potential victims or potential perpetrators, such an approach takes a wider view of violence prevention. Broad coalitions must be formed between varied communities and organizations, as well as across fields and professions. Groups and organizations with large male memberships should be particularly focused on. Six cases studies of such prevention efforts are included in the document.

This document is available at:
www.endabuse.org/bpi/discussion1/Discussion1-long.pdf

Topics: Prevention

Kelley, M. L., Schwerin, M. J., Farrar, K. L., & Lane, M. E. (2005). An evaluation of a sexual assault prevention and advocacy program for U.S. navy personnel. Military Medicine, 170, 320-326.

In response to the high rates of sexual victimization, the Navy has implemented the Sexual Assault Victim Intervention program (SAVI). SAVI provides training to increase sexual assault awareness and advocacy to guide survivors through medical, legal, and investigative systems. The study examined the effectiveness of the SAVI program. Nineteen SAVI programs participated in the study and 416 completed surveys were analyzed. The majority of participants were active duty Navy service members. Majority of participants reported that the quality of the prevention training and advocacy services were better or much better than expected (64% and 83%, respectively). Most participants (87%) indicated that the advocacy services helped them cope with sexual assault. More than 95% of the individuals from the prevention training and the advocacy services agreed or strongly agreed that the program enhanced the health and safety of sailors and their families. Directions for future research are presented.

Topics: Evaluation; military; prevention

Kisiel, C., Blaustein, M., Spinazzola, J., Schmidt, C. S., Zucker, M., & van der Kolk, B. (2006). Evaluation of a theater-based youth violence prevention program for elementary school children. Journal of School Violence, 5, 19-36. [Posted August 2007]

Key Points: Children who participated in the program had better pro-social skills, developed fewer new aggressive behaviors, and scored higher on attention and engagement scales than those who did not participate.

Abstract: Four classrooms of fourth-grade students (n=77) participated in Urban Improv (UI), a youth violence prevention program incorporating theater and education. The program consisted of nine weekly sessions, and incorporated experiential learning and discussion. Students in participating classrooms were compared with students in four classrooms that did not participate in UI (controls: n=63).

Students and teachers completed pre- and post-program evaluations. Students completed self-report on measures on their social skills, problem behaviors, coping style, and attitudes and beliefs about aggression. Teachers reported on their students’ demonstration of pro-social skills (cooperation, self-control, and assertiveness) and problem behaviors.

Though student self-reports did not indicate changes between pre- and post-tests, teacher post-program assessments showed significant positive differences between participants and controls. Participants were found to maintain baseline levels of aggression, while controls’ aggressive behavior increased. Pro-social behaviors increased in the participant group and decreased in the control group. Additionally, students who participated in the program showed an improvement in attention/ engagement behaviors, while non-participants showed a decrease in those behaviors.

Topics: Curriculum; prevention

Klaw, E. L., Lonsway, K. A., Berg, D. R., Waldo, C. R., Kothari, C., Mazurek, C. J., & Hegeman, K. E. (2005). Challenging rape culture: Awareness, emotion and action through campus acquaintance rape education. Women & Therapy, 28, 47-63.

The authors conducted a qualitative exploration of college students' experiences with an intensive semester-long rape prevention education course. The Campus Acquaintance Rape Education (CARE) program is based on a feminist perspective, emphasizing the role of gender inequality in sexual violence. Students enrolled in the course are trained to facilitate rape education workshops on campus. The data sources consisted of focus group discussions and reaction papers written by CARE students. Using content analysis, the authors identified three themes related to the effects of the CARE course: 1) increased rape consciousness, 2) emotional reactions to the course material, and 3) increased skills and activism. Unique reactions by men, women, and female survivors were documented. The authors conclude with suggestions for rape education programs and related research.

Topics: College; curriculum; prevention

Koss, M. P., & Harvey, M. R. (1991). The rape victim: Clinical and community interventions (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

Chapter 7: Preventing sexual assault
Rape prevention is an organizing theme in the sexual assault field. Virtually all community-based rape crisis centers and anti-rape projects at local, regional, or national levels sponsor rape prevention initiatives. This chapter examines preventive initiatives in the sexual assault field and touches on activities directed toward each of these goals. Primary attention is given to activities that promote rape elimination through public education and social change as well as rape avoidance through competence-building, risk-awareness, and self defense training.

Topics: Avoidance; community attitudes/responses; prevention

Lanier, C. A. (2001). Rape-accepting attitudes: Precursors to or consequences of forced sex. Violence Against Women, 7, 876-885. [Posted April 2007.]

Key Points: Acceptance of rape myths predicted subsequent sexual aggression among a group of middle school and high school boys.

Abstract: This study sought to answer the questions: does rape-myth acceptance precede perpetration of sexual violence, or does the perpetrator justify their actions by adopting rape-accepting attitudes?

Boys from 14 middle schools and high schools in rural North Carolina were surveyed. They were asked if they had ever forced a date to have sex or forced a date to do something sexual. They were also asked to rate their agreement with common rape myths. One year later, 851 boys completed a second survey. Those who were more accepting of rape myths initially were more likely to report perpetration. Perpetration did not result in increased acceptance of rape myths.

This study suggested that curriculum targeting rape myth-accepting attitudes accepting of rape myths may reduce forced sex by adolescent males.

Some limitations of this study include: boys may have been reluctant to self-identify as perpetrators, fearing that they could be identified; they may have indicated a lower acceptance of rape myths than they really felt; and they were not asked to define what “doing something sexual” meant to them.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; evaluation; myths/stereotypes; perpetration; prevention

Lanier, C. A., & Elliot, M. N. (1997). A new instrument for the evaluation of a date rape prevention program. Journal of College Student Development, 38, 673-676.

This article presents the results of a study of a new behavior scale designed specifically to evaluate the efficacy of date rape prevention programs. The sample included 436 college students who filled-out the College Date Rape Attitude and Behavior Survey (CDRABS). The survey contains 20 questions addressing attitudes and 7 questions addressing behaviors, all of which pertain to heterosexual date rape on campuses. Women had lower rape-supportive attitudes than men, suggesting convergent validity of this scale with other measures of rape-supportive attitudes. Significant correlations between certain attitude and behavior items indicate that the attitude scale may be predictive of rape-supportive behavior among men as well as predictive of women's self-reported high risk behaviors given certain attitudes toward sexual activity among the women. The authors propose that the CDRABS may be useful for measuring students' initial attitudes and behaviors as well as serving as an instrument in the evaluation of date rape prevention programs designed to enhance awareness of date rape prevention.

Topics: College; evaluation; male-female relations; prevention; risk

Lee, D.S., Guy, L., Perry, B., Sniffen, C.K., & Mixson, S.A. (2007). Sexual violence prevention. The Prevention Researcher, 14, 15-20. [Posted August 2007]

Key Points: Because sexual violence is a social problem, ending it requires comprehensive community prevention strategies as well as individual education.

Abstract: The authors reviewed the feminist theoretical basis for sexual violence prevention programs, which states that cultural norms and unequal gender roles lead inevitably to violence against women. They argue that education efforts that address attitudes about gender roles and seek to build relationship skills can be made more effective by incorporating them into comprehensive and community change models.

Several comprehensive programs developed using the Ecological Model and the Spectrum of Prevention model are described. Examples of programs based on community mobilization, changing social norms, and social marketing illustrate community level prevention strategies. The importance of promoting policy changes at local and national levels is emphasized. Finally, the authors call for more funding and research into cultural causes of and responses to sexual violence.

Topics: Prevention; theory

Lonsway, K. A., Klaw, E. L., Berg, D. R., Waldo, C. R., & Kothari, C. (1998). Beyond “no means no”: Outcomes of an intensive program to train peer facilitators for campus acquaintance rape education. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 13, 73-92.

This study examined the effects of an intensive rape education program. Undergraduate participants enrolled in a semester long university course titled "Campus Acquaintance Rape Education" (CARE) which was designed to train peer facilitators to conduct rape education workshops. This group was compared to students enrolled in a general human sexuality course. Quantitative analysis of pre- and post-course responses suggest that comprehensive attitude change occurred for students in CARE but not for those in the human sexuality course. Follow-up investigations conducted two years after course participation revealed that CARE students were still less accepting of cultural rape myths than those in the human sexuality class. The authors suggest that sex education will be insufficient to prevent rape unless explicit attention is paid to issues of both gender inequality and sexual violence.

Topics: Curriculum; evaluation; prevention

Mantak, F. J. (1995). Creating an alternative framework for preventing rape: Applying Haddon's injury prevention strategies. Journal of Public Health Policy, 16, 13-28.

This paper reviews current literature on injury prevention and rape. It defines the hazard involved in rape and applies Haddon's model, a host-agent-environment model of classic epidemiology, in order to present a broader foundation for rape prevention. This paper focuses on heterosexual rape. Rape is not treated as an injury itself, separate from any accompanying physical injury. These studies also focus on the behavior of the victim and exclude the behavior of the perpetrator. Haddon's injury prevention strategies to rape underscore sociocultural factors and perpetrator, not victim, responsibility. These strategies have been divided into primary, secondary, and tertiary phases of prevention.

Topics: Effects; prevention

Mattaini, M. A., & McGuire, M. S. (2006). Behavioral strategies for constructing nonviolent cultures with Youth: A review. Behavior Modification, 30, 184-224.

This article provides a brief review of the roots of youth violence at a social level. It describes the traits of effective and ineffective programs to address youth violence, and focuses on two types of intervention strategies it considers to be promising and potentially effective. The first type is universal skill training with youth, for which the article provides an analysis of several programs using universal skill training. Each program description offers and a summary of its strengths and weaknesses. Such programmatic analysis is also provided for the second intervention type, which is the use of universal ecological based strategies in interventions. Such interventions are designed to change cultural practice in cultural networks.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; prevention; theory

Maxwell, C., Robinson, A., & Post, L. (2003). The nature and predictors of sexual victimization and offending among adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 32, 465-477.

Many studies have been conducted investigating the factors surrounding adult sexual assault perpetration and victimization. Recently, studies on young adults and adolescents have revealed that alarmingly high rates of sexual assault victims are under the age of 18 years old. The purpose of this study was to investigate the prevalence and nature of sexual aggression among adolescents. Participants included 476 students from two high schools who volunteered to answer a self-report survey. This consisted of several measures: the RAPE Attitudes Scale, the Attitudes Toward Victims Scale, and the Legal Knowledge Scale. In addition, questions concerning demographics and dating behaviors were also included. Analyses of their responses indicated that almost half of the female students reported experiencing some form of sexual aggression and one-third of the male students reported having engaged in some form of sexual aggression. Additional differences across demographic variables were found to be significant. Among these, certain risk factors were evident; in particular, the likelihood of reporting victimization was higher among students who reported more frequent dating during the past month and/or dating various people during the previous six months. Furthermore, women not planning on attending college reported higher rates of sexual assault victimization. Legal knowledge about rape and positive attitudes towards women were correlated with lower levels of sexual assault perpetration among high school men. Implications for school-based prevention programs are reviewed.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; perpetration; prevalence; prevention; risk

McCall, G. J. (1993). Risk factors and sexual assault prevention. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 8, 277-295.

The author asserts that sexual assault prevention programming has little scientific underpinning and is thus scattered and incoherent in its development. This situation reflects general policy biases against sexuality-related interventions as well as "merely preventive" programs. The author argues that an ambiguity of societal vision has undermined the cause of sexual assault prevention. Sexual assault prevention suffers because it fully fits neither the traditional crime prevention model nor the traditional public health model of prevention programming. The author traces the technical and political consequences of this fundamental ambiguity, giving consideration to a transcendental alternative model.

Topics: Prevention; risk

McCaughey, M., & King, N. (1995). Rape education videos: Presenting mean women instead of dangerous men. Teaching Sociology, 23, 374-388.

This paper addresses two methods of rape prevention education that employ videos. The first focuses on "dangerous men" by presenting students with visual examples of male brutality against women in which women are depicted as vulnerable, weak, and overpowered. While disturbing and perhaps capable of inciting awareness of violence against women, they may also contribute toward promoting certain stereotypes concerning male physical strength and female weakness and submission. The second type of video – and the one analyzed in this study – draws upon scenes from movies wherein women are depicted as powerful, armed, and aggressive. Based on students' reactions to this type of video, depictions of aggressive women destabilize men's sense of physical power and replace that confidence with the realization that women have the potential for an alternative response to violence against them.

Topics: Curriculum; male-female relations; prevention

Merrill, L. L., Newell, C. E., Milner, J. S., Koss, M. P., Hervig, L. K., Gold, S. R., et al. (1998). Prevalence of premilitary adult sexual victimization and aggression in a Navy recruit sample. Military Medicine, 163, 209-212.

This article addresses the need for identifying, treating, educating, and preventing sexual assault among military recruits based on a survey of 3,776 US Navy recruits. Results from the survey revealed that 45.5% of the women had experienced attempted rape (9.4%) or completed rape (36.1%) prior to joining the Navy. Of the male recruits, 14.8% admitted committing attempted (3.5%) or completed rape (11.3%) prior to joining the Navy. Since sexual assault victims are likely to require psychological and/or physical treatment by health care providers and male perpetrators are likely to re-offend, it is crucial that the military address these issues among recruits so that intervention and prevention are possible.

Topics: Military; perpetration; prevalence; prevention; risk

Mitchell, K. J., Finkelhor, D., & Wolak, J. (2005). The Internet and family and acquaintance sexual abuse. Child Maltreatment, 10, 49-60.

The purpose of the study was to examine how offenders use the Internet to commit sexual abuse. A subset of the data from the National Juvenile Online Victimization Study was analyzed. The dataset consisted of 126 arrests involving family or acquaintance sexual offenders. Family and acquaintance offenders constituted 18% of all arrests for Internet crimes during a 1-year period starting in 2000. Family offenders were more likely to commit crimes against female victims under the age of 12, whereas acquaintance offenders were more likely to commit crimes against male teenagers. The authors identified five primary ways that the Internet was used in sex crimes: 1) seduction and grooming, 2) storing and disseminating child pornography to other offenders, 3) arranging meeting times and communicating with victims, 4) rewarding and enticing minors into the offender's home, and 5) advertising or selling minors to other offenders. Implications for prevention messages and investigation approaches are discussed.

Topics: Media/internet; perpetration; prevention

Moffitt, T. E., & Caspi, A. (1999). Findings about partner violence from the Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study. National Institute of Justice: Research in Brief, 1-12.

This report summarizes the results of a study conducted on a birth cohort of 1,037 men and women born in New Zealand between April 1, 1972 and March 31, 1973. The Dunedin researchers focused on partner violence as a potential example of antisocial behavior during childhood and teenage delinquency carried over into adulthood. Results of the study revealed that partner violence is associated with risk factors in childhood and adolescence involving poverty and low academic achievement for men and harsh family discipline and parental discord for women. Mental illness was present among 65% of females exposed to physical abuse and among 88% of the male perpetrators. The strongest risk factor for male and female perpetrators of partner violence involved a history of physically aggressive behavior prior to the age of 15 years. The findings from this study suggest that three intervention tactics are necessary to reduce partner violence in adulthood. The first needs to teach teenagers to avoid using violence against their partners. The second strategy involves interventions with young parents to reduce their stress and subsequently reduce the potential for exposure of their children to violence within the home. Lastly, given the findings that perpetrators of partner violence tend to be mentally ill and engage in other violent crimes, intervention needs to draw upon the interaction of law enforcement, the judicial system, and the mental health profession.

Topics: Marital rape; perpetration; prevention; risk; underserved populations

Morrison, K. (2005). Motivating women and men to take protective action against rape: Examining direct and indirect persuasive fear appeals. Health Communications, 18, 237-256.

The aim of the study was to examine the effectiveness of direct and indirect persuasive fear appeals to encourage women to enroll in rape prevention self-defense courses. Messages targeting men persuaded them to talk to women they care about and recommend that they enroll in self-defense courses. The study was influenced by several theories including Witte's extended parallel process model (EPPM, 1992), Lerner's just world hypothesis (1965), and social exchange theories. The sample consisted of 115 male and 144 female undergraduate students. Male and female participants were exposed to different high-threat and low-threat messages. The results showed that direct fear appeals had a positive impact on women talking about and enrolling in self-defense courses. Men's behaviors and intentions were influenced by indirect fear appeals. Implications for men's role in rape prevention are discussed.

Topics: Media/internet; prevention

O'Donohue, W., Downs, K., & Yeater, E. A. (1998). Sexual harassment: A review of the literature. Aggression & Violent Behavior, 3, 111-128.

The authors review research on sexual harassment related to definitional, etiological, epidemiological, treatment, prevention issues, and effects. The authors state that while there are many controversies concerning how sexual harassment is defined, it is evident that there are subtypes of sexual harassment, including such as gender harassment, unwanted sexual attention, and sexual coercion. Existing research also indicates that women are frequently affected by sexual harassment and that verbal harassment is more common than nonverbal harassment. It is common for victims of sexual harassment to experience negative psychological, work-related, and economic consequences. Suggestions for future research are offered.

Topics: Effects; harassment; prevention

O'Donohue, W., Yeater, E. A., & Fanetti, M. (2003). Rape prevention with college males: The roles of rape myth acceptance, victim empathy, and outcome expectancies. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 18, 513-531.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the role of individual differences in influencing the effects of rape prevention programs targeting men. One objective was to examine the association between the effects of anti-rape videotape content and men's sexual coercive histories. A second objective was to investigate the effects of the anti-rape videotape on men's sex-related alcohol expectancies. The sample consisted of 45 male undergraduate students. Twenty-two participants were categorized as sexually coercive and 23 participants were sexually noncoercive based on responses to a modified version of the Sexual Experiences Survey. Participants were randomly assigned to either the anti-rape videotape or control videotape condition. Effects of the anti-rape videotape on rape-myth acceptance and sex-related alcohol expectancies were influenced by men's coerciveness. Implications of the findings for rape prevention programs are presented.

Topics: Alcohol; college; evaluation; prevention

Parrot, A., Cummings, N., Marchell, T. C., & Hofher, J. (1994). A rape awareness and prevention model for male athletes. Journal of American College Health, 42, 179-184.

Sexual assault prevention programs on college campuses tend to focus on changing female rather than male behaviors and are often not effective in preventing acquaintance rape. Educational efforts must be designed to overcome both men's and women's denial of the problem of rape and must inform men about acceptable forms of sexual interaction. This article discusses a proactive, rape prevention program implemented with a university varsity football team. A framework for a rape awareness/prevention program that targets male college athletes is presented. The goals of rape prevention for male athletes must include educating students about the behaviors, risks, and consequences of committing sexual assault. Education programs must also challenge attitudes that demean or objectify women, as well as messages of male domination as normative, which condone and perpetuate rape-prone environments. Rape prevention efforts should address interrelated issues such as relationship expectations, gender roles, power dynamics, communication, and alcohol and other drug use. The authors recommend the development of a sequential series of programs based on a 4-year cycle that introduces fundamental concepts surrounding the issue of sexual assault. Issues of moral development, attitudes, and assumptions – including those toward sexual entitlement – are discussed. A specific format for this program is presented, including engaging techniques for facilitators.

Topics: Athletes/fraternities; college; curriculum; prevention

Potter, R. H., Krider, J. E., & McMahon P. M. (2000). Examining elements of campus sexual violence policies: Is deterrence or health promotion favored? Violence Against Women, 6, 1345-1362.

The authors compare criminal justice and public health perspectives in order to understand sexual violence policies. The public health model focuses on prevention through health promotion, while the criminal justice model is based primarily on deterrence. Policies formulated under different theoretical perspectives are likely to have different implications and outcomes. This study focused on campus sexual violence policies from the two perspectives. Policies in a sample of 100 United States colleges and universities in 1998 were examined. The authors present a descriptive analysis of the types of sexual violence prevention programs and dissemination of knowledge about the policies, and then analyze the policy data utilizing content analytic techniques. They found that deterrence-based prevention efforts were most common, followed by risk- or opportunity-reduction approaches. The authors conclude by discussing the possible impact of campus sexual violence prevention efforts where the public health and criminal justice approaches are merged.

Topics: College; evaluation; prevention

Saunders, B. E., Kilpatrick, D. G., Hanson, R. F., Resnick, H. S., & Walker, M. E. (1999). Prevalence, case characteristics, and long-term psychological correlates of child rape among women: A national survey. Child Maltreatment: Journal of the American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children, 4, 187-200.

A national probability sample of 4,008 adult women (aged 18–69+ years) was screened by phone for a history of completed rape in childhood using the Incident Classification Interview (Kilpatrick et al., 1989). Characteristics of child rape incidents were also assessed. Respondents were evaluated for a history of major depressive episode, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and substance use problems. This study endeavored to: (1) determine the prevalence of a history of completed rape in childhood among adult women in the United States; (2) collect incident-characteristic data about child rapes to develop a national profile of these assaults; and (3) examine the increased risk, if any, that being the victim of at least one child rape presents to women for developing PTSD, major depression, and substance use problems. Results showed that childhood rape dramatically increases risk for the development of psychological problems. The article concludes with a discussion of the implications of these results for prevention, intervention, and future research.

Topics: Effects; prevalence; prevention; risk; survivors

Schewe, P., & O'Donohue, W. (1993). Rape prevention: Methodological problems and new directions. Clinical Psychology Review, 13, 667-682.

This study examines interventions that target males and are focused on primary prevention of rape. The author states that previous works have ignored situation and situation-by-person interactions and they have failed to develop an appropriate taxonomy of rapists. The author also contends that most programs are based on the dubious assumption that changes in attitudes will result in changes in rape incidence. It is also concluded that current studies do not demonstrate persistence of treatment effects.

Topics: Prevention

Schewe, P. A., & O'Donohue, W. (1996). Rape prevention with high-risk males: Short-term outcome of two interventions. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 25, 455-471.

This article discusses the development and evaluation of two interventions designed to reduce the amount of date rape attempted by male college students: (1) the Rape Supportive Cognition's (RSC) intervention, which targets commonly held false beliefs that promote or condone coercive sexual behavior; and (2) the Victim/Empathy Outcome Expectancies (VE/OE) intervention, which targets poor victim empathy and problematic rape outcome expectancies. Seventy-four high-risk subjects, as determined by scores on the Attraction to Sexual Aggression scale (ASA), were randomly assigned to one of the treatment groups or to a no-treatment control group. Treatment effects were assessed using subjects' pre- and posttest scores on the ASA, the Rape Myth Acceptance, the Acceptance of Interpersonal Violence, and the Adversarial Sexual Beliefs scales as well as subjects' posttest scores on the Rape Conformity Assessment. Results indicated that both treatments were significantly more effective than no treatment, with the RSC group showing clinically significant changes on three of the five dependent measures while the VE/OE group evidenced significant changes on only one measure.

Topics: College; evaluation; perpetration; prevention

Scott, C. S., Lefley, H. P., & Hicks, D. (1993). Potential risk factors for rape in three ethnic groups. Community Mental Health Journal, 29, 133-141.

The authors discuss the frequency of risk factors detected in a study of sexual assault among African American, Hispanic, and non-Hispanic White women during treatment at a major rape treatment center. A total of 881 victims were screened: 449 were negative for observable risk factors while the remaining 432 were positive for risk factors. These risk factors included: previous history of rape or incest, mental disability, tourist or visitor status, and homelessness. Results suggest that ethnic groups vary significantly in these categories. It is suggested that economic and cultural variables may affect rape risk factors and should be taken into account when planning rape prevention programs.

Topics: Prevention; racial/ethnic differences; risk; survivors

Short, L. M., McMahon, P. M., Chervin, D. D., Shelley, G. A., Lezin, N., Sloop, K. S., et al. (2000). Survivors' identification of protective factors and early warning signs for intimate partner violence. Violence Against Women, 6, 272-285.

This study proposed hypotheses concerning factors that may place women at risk for an abusive relationship, the potential early warning signs for physical partner violence, and the potential protective factors for cessation of violence once it has begun. Questions addressed women in violent sexual relationships: reasons women remain in abusive relationships, factors that may end the violence, barriers, potential early warning signs, resources, racial differences, and location differences. Urban and rural African American and White women (N = 168) in five US regions were recruited for 22 focus groups. Participants were between the ages of 18–50 years old, had been exposed to physical violence in intimate relationships, and were free of violence for at least 6 months at the time of the study. Similarities were found among all groups in their experiences of intimate partner violence. Furthermore, women in the focus groups stated that once violence began within their relationships, it escalated over time. The authors suggest implications for intervention. For example, the information gleaned from the participants may be informative to institutions that are active in removing women from violent relationships. Particularly, three areas of prevention implications were discussed. These include: the need for awareness in identifying early warning signs of intimate partner violence, the significance of family abuse history, and the need to educate adolescents – especially young girls – prior to the development of any intimate relationships.

Topics: Male-female relations; prevention; racial/ethnic differences; risk; survivors

Shultz, S. K., Scherman, A., & Marshall, L. J. (2000). Evaluation of university-based date rape prevention program: Effect on attitudes and behavior related to rape. Journal of College Student Development, 41, 193-201.

This study evaluates the effectiveness of the Campus Rape Prevention program in changing rape-related attitudes and behaviors of 60 male and female undergraduate students (18–22 years old). Participants in the treatment groups were less accepting of rape myths than those in the control groups, suggesting that treatment is better than no treatment. Results suggest that changes observed between treatment and control groups were the result of the prevention program rather than pretests. It was not possible to dismiss the existence of a relationship between rape-related attitudes and behaviors. The results of this study offer support that male participants' attitudes in support of rape decreased following the prevention program.

Topics: College; evaluation; myth/stereotypes; prevention

Sochting, I., Fairbrother, N., & Koch, W. J. (2004). Sexual assault of women: Prevention efforts and risk factors. Violence Against Women, 10, 73-93.

This review article summarizes the research on the effectiveness of different types of rape prevention programs, including attitude change and self-defense programs. A review of the body of literature on risk factors for sexual assault is also presented. Strategies for improving rape prevention programs are highlighted and include identifying targets for behavioral change based on risk factors and training women in rape resistance strategies. Results suggested that attitude change was a less effective prevention approach.

Topics: Avoidance/resistance; college; evaluation; prevention; risk; vulnerability

Stephens, K. A., & George, W. H. (2004). Effects of anti-rape video content on sexually coercive and noncoercive college men's attitudes and alcohol expectancies. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 34, 402-416.

This study investigated the short-term effects of a video-based rape prevention program for college men. The video content had three components: rape myths, victim empathy, and outcome expectancies. A pilot study consisting of 101 male undergraduate students was conducted to determine the content validity and acceptability of the three videotape components. In the main study, a separate sample of 102 male undergraduates was randomly assigned to the video-based experimental program or an alternate video-based program that did not target the three components of interest. Results showed that the experimental videotape was associated with significant changes in several rape-related measures, such as attraction to sexual aggression, rape myth acceptance, and rape empathy compared to the alternate videotape. This study highlights the importance of developing and implementing programs to decrease men's potential for committing rape.

Topics: College; evaluation; prevention

Wandersman, A. (2003). Community science: Bridging the gap between science and practice with community-centered models. American Journal of Community Psychology, 31, 227-242.

In this article, Wandersman introduces community science as an interdisciplinary field that uses community-based models to improve the quality of treatment, prevention, health promotion, and education. He provides a definition of community science, outlines key features, and indicates how it might be used to bridge the gap between science and practice. Prior to this discussion, Wandersman presents an overview of the traditional "prevention science" model for integrating science and practice and highlights its limitations. He concludes the article with directions for further development of community-centered models.

Topics: Prevention; theory

Yeater, E. A., & O'Donohue, W. (1999). Sexual assault prevention programs: Current issues, future directions, and the potential efficacy of interventions with women. Clinical Psychology Review, 19, 739-771.

Current problems facing the primary prevention of sexual assault are reviewed. Effective sexual assault prevention programs for both males and females have been slow to develop due to the fact that the etiologies of sexual assault have not been identified. Although dissemination of prevention programs has become increasingly popular in recent years, few programs have evaluated the extent to which the constructs identified in the interventions are effective at decreasing rates of sexual assault. The authors discuss previous studies in sexual assault prevention programs, methodological and conceptual problems that currently exist in the field, pragmatic difficulties regarding program implementation and evaluation, and recommendations for future research with an emphasis on interventions with female participants. It is concluded that the long-term negative consequences often associated with sexual victimization require that effective prevention programs are developed to decrease the high rates of sexual assault that occur on college campuses.

Topics: College; evaluation; prevention

Young, A., Young, A. & Fullwood, H. (2007). Adolescent online victimization. The Prevention Researcher, 14, 8-9. [Posted April 2007.]

Key Points: As Internet use becomes more common, the number of youth exposed to online sexual solicitation, sexual material, and harassment (sexual or bullying) has increased.

Abstract: In a review of three recent studies, the authors estimated national prevalence of online victimization of youth at 13% for sexual solicitation; 34% for exposure to unwanted sexual material; and 9% for any type of harassment. The majority of incidents was not distressing and was not reported to adults.

Risk factors for online victimization included older age (youth 14-17 were at higher risk than younger children) and gender (girls were more likely to experience sexual solicitation or harassment than boys). In one study, 60% of youth gave out personal information in an online questionnaire or form. About 45% gave that information to someone they had met online.

Possible prevention strategies include frank discussion by adults about Internet victimization so that youth are better equipped to avoid it and deal with it if it happens. The authors recommended making youth aware of the possible consequences of sharing personal information online. Adults can also prepare youth to take action if they are victimized: removing themselves from the situation; changing screen name; and reporting the incident to prevent others from being victimized.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; harassment; media/ Internet; prevalence; prevention; risk

Updated 08/01/07