Abbey, A. (2005). Lessons learned and unanswered questions about sexual assault perpetration. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20, 39-42.

This article provides a brief overview of central elements characteristic of research on sexual assault perpetration. Most importantly, Abbey discusses the degree to which perpetrators actually “blend into society and cannot be easily pigeon holed” (p. 40) and highlights the focus of prevention programs that target victims rather than perpetrators. Given some of the drawbacks of interviews and questionnaires, the author proposes computer-assisted interviews (CASI) as the methodology with the most potential for providing accurate estimates of sexual assault prevalence and perpetration.

Topics: Perpetration; prevalence; prevention

Abbey, A., Zawacki, T., & Buck, P. (2001). Alcohol and sexual assault. Alcohol Research & Health, 25, 43-51.

This article provides an overview of some of the key issues involved in the multifaceted relationship between alcohol and sexual assault. The authors begin by citing prevalence estimates of sexual assault and alcohol-involved sexual assault. This is followed by a comparison of characteristics that are common to nonalcohol-involved and/or alcohol-involved sexual assaults. Issues involved in studying the relationship between alcohol and sexual assault are also addressed. For example, the two most common approaches to examining the role of alcohol in sexual assault involve either surveys of victims and perpetrators or studies within a laboratory setting. Additional issues examined in this article include the distal and proximal factors in the pathways between alcohol consumption and sexual assault as well as the roles that personality, attitudes, and experiences of perpetrators and victims may play. The significance of situational factors are also reviewed. The authors discuss male-female interactions within different settings, the impact alcohol consumption may have in various settings, and the importance of male-female communication, cues, and the (mis)perceptions thereof. As such, previous research on alcohol and aggressive and sexual behavior are also reviewed. Lastly, important questions for future research on the dynamics of alcohol and sexual assault are presented.

Topics: Alcohol; male-female relations; prevalence; risk

Bachman, R. (2000). A comparison of annual incidence rates and contextual characteristics of intimate-perpetrated violence against women from the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) and the National Violence Against Women Survey (NVAWS). Violence Against Women, 6, 839-867.

The author asserts that research efforts employing diverse methodologies have yielded very different estimates of intimate-perpetrated violence against women. The article provides a comparison of annual incident rates of rape and physical assault against women as estimated by the National Violence Against Women Survey; co-sponsored by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and National Institute of Justice and the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) sponsored by the Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS). The author indicates that the datasets were made as comparable as possible via several data restrictions. These restrictions included restricting the NCVS data to include only incidents of rape (to the exclusion of other sexual assaults) and physical assault against women 18 years of age and older. The methodological differences of each survey, that made comparisons tenuous, are described and recommendations for policy are provided.

Topics: Prevalence; statistics

Banyard, V. L., Plante, E. G., Cohn, E. S., Moorhead, C., Ward, S., & Walsh, W. (2005). Revisiting unwanted sexual experiences on campus: A 12-year follow-up. Violence Against Women, 11, 426-446.

The authors conducted an exploratory study in 1988 of unwanted sexual experiences on campus. Consequently, this article is a follow-up to that study. Although 524 women completed the 1988 survey, information concerning male victimization was insufficient from that study to be compared against the responses from 231 men and 417 women who completed the 2000 questionnaire. As such, only surveys from female respondents were used in the analysis. The survey included questions addressing unwanted sexual experiences, characteristics of the experiences, and disclosure. Results yielded a significant difference between 1988 and 2000 concerning prevalence of victimization (i.e., a drop in victimization rates of 37% in 1988 to 20.9% in 2000) and a significant decrease in unwanted sexual contact. Reported rates of unwanted sexual intercourse, on the other hand, remained constant across study years. Implications for prevention programs directed at campus communities are discussed.

Topics: College; male-female relations; prevalence

Basile, K. C., Black, M. C., Simon, T. R., Arias, I., Brener, N. D., & Saltzman, L. E. (2006). The association between self-reported lifetime history of forced sexual intercourse and recent health-risk behaviors: Findings from the 2003 National Youth Risk Behavior Survey. Journal of Adolescent Health, 39, 752.e1-752.e7. [Posted January 2007.]

Key Points: In a nationally representative sample of 13,080 high school students, 1 in 8 girls and 1 in 16 boys reported a history of forced sexual intercourse. Female and male victims were more likely to also have experienced recent dating violence and engage in health risk behaviors compared to non-victims.

Abstract: This study used data from the 2003 Youth Risk Behavior Survey. Students provided information on a range of health risk behaviors.  Both female and male victims of forced sex were more likely than non-victims to have been physically abused by a dating partner and to have considered or attempted suicide in the previous 12 months. Female and male victims were more likely to have engaged in recent unhealthy eating behaviors and substance abuse.  Because the survey asked about only one type of sexual violence (forced intercourse), it is likely that the rates of sexual victimization were higher than reported in the study. The researchers recommend increasing both primary and secondary prevention efforts to reduce the harm of sexual violence.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; prevalence; risk

Basile, K. C., Swahn, M. H., Chen, J., & Saltzman, L. E. (2006). Stalking in the United States: Recent national prevalence estimates. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 31, 172-175. [Posted April 2007.]

Key Points: Stalking affects 7% of women and 2% of men in the United States at some point in their lives.

Abstract: Researchers analyzed data from the second national Injury Control and Risk Survey (ICARIS-2; N=9684). Respondents were considered victims of stalking if they had been followed and described the experience as “somewhat dangerous” or “life-threatening.” Based on this definition, an estimated 7 million women and 2 million men in the United States have been stalked.

Significant factors associated with having been stalked included being female, white, not married or living as a couple, being employed, and being less than 55 years old.

The authors recommended research to develop prevention interventions that can be used jointly by criminal justice and public health to reduce the prevalence of stalking and provide services to victims.

Limitations of the study included lack of information on the relationship of the stalker to the victim. Description of stalking was limited to two questions, and stalking tactics used were not assessed.

Topics: Prevalence; stalking

Beck, A. J., & Hughes, T. A. (2005). Sexual violence reported by correctional authorities, 2004. Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice. NCJ 210333. Available online at: http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/abstract/svrca04.htm

Given the Prison Rape Elimination Act of 2003, this study provides a review of the 2004 administrative survey of sexual violence in adult and juvenile corrections (public and private prisons, jails, juvenile facilities, and others). Sexual violence was measured as nonconsensual sexual acts, abusive sexual contacts, staff sexual misconduct, and staff sexual harassment. Results of the review revealed that 5,528 allegations of sexual violence were recorded in 2004, with prison systems reporting 42% of those allegations. Specifically, staff sexual misconduct yielded the highest rate (with 1.31 allegations/1,000 inmates) and inmate-on-inmate nonconsensual acts yielded the second highest rate (1.16 allegations/1,000 inmates). Additional rates are reviewed concerning substantiated incidents, victim and perpetrator demographics, and administrative responses to sexual violence within corrections.

Topics: Male rape; prevalence; prison rape; underserved populations

Beebe, D. K., Gulledge, K. M., Lee, C. M., & Replogle, W. (1994). Prevalence of sexual assault among women patients seen in family practice clinics. Family Practice Research Journal, 14, 223-228.

This article discusses a study assessing the prevalence and characteristics of sexual assault among women patients attending two family medicine residency-training clinics. Women patients (N = 204) were asked to complete a questionnaire to identify rates and type of sexual assaults. Of the women who responded, 28.7% reported some type of sexual assault, with low percentages of them ever reporting the incident to police or seeking medical attention or counseling services. The need for family physicians to be aware of the prevalence of sexual assault in their patients, as well as understanding proper questioning, management, counseling, and referral options is addressed. The need of family physicians to receive specific training for sexual assault victims is discussed and clinical tips are included.

Topics: Effects; prevalence

Belknap, J., Fisher, B. S., & Cullen, F. T. (1999). The development of a comprehensive measure of the sexual victimization of college women. Violence Against Women, 5, 185-214.

These authors indicate that sexual victimization has only recently been identified as an important problem on college and university campuses. They point out that researchers have used a number of different methodologies and sources of data to describe the extent and scope of sexual victimization of college women. The authors state that these studies are often flawed by an abbreviated conceptualization of sexual victimization (one that omits sexual stalking and harassment) and by the failure to distinguish between the different ranges of both more and less serious sexual victimizations. This article also presents a measure of sexual victimization that includes incident reports.

Topics: College; harassment; prevalence; stalking

Bergman, L. (1992). Dating violence among high school students. Social Work, 37, 21-27.

This study estimates the proportion of high school students who have experienced physical, sexual, or severe (sexual and physical) violence in dating relationships. This study also determined how gender, age, grade point average, dating frequency, age at which dating began, and number of dating partners were correlated with high school dating violence. Students from three Midwestern high schools participated in the study. One in four females in the study reported experiencing severe violence. The majority of victims did not report the violence. Number of dating partners was the most significant indicator of violence, with grade point average and dating frequency being the next highest predictors.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; prevalence; risk

Bernhard, L. A. (2000). Physical and sexual violence experienced by lesbian and heterosexual women. Violence Against Women, 6, 68-79.

The author sought to discover if there were differences in the violence experienced by lesbian and heterosexual women and whether lesbian and heterosexual women differ in their response to violence. A convenience sample of 136 lesbian and 79 heterosexual women (all subjects aged 19–67 years) completed a survey. The author found that while significantly more lesbians (51%) than heterosexual women (33%) reported nonsexual physical violence, there was no significant difference between the groups in the prevalence of sexual violence (lesbian 54%, heterosexual 44%). The author found that the principal actions for all women in response to violence were similar and that they included talking to someone, avoidance, or doing nothing. The author states that these “passive strategies” have limited value.

Topics: Lesbian, gay, bisexual & transgender; prevalence

Brown, H., Stein, J., & Turk, V. (1995). The sexual abuse of adults with learning disabilities: Report of a second two-year incidence survey. Mental Handicap Research, 8, 3-24.

This article reports the results of a survey conducted in the United Kingdom. The survey was administered to discover the rate of sexual abuse of adults with learning disabilities. The authors found that both men and women were at risk. Consistent with the literature the authors found that perpetrators were predominantly men and that the perpetrator was usually known to the survivor. The authors also noted a significant increase in the proportion of men with learning disabilities reporting sexual abuse. The authors indicate that although there is increased awareness about the sexual abuse of men and women with learning disabilities, that service agencies have not developed systems for reporting sexual abuse.

Topics: Disabled; prevalence

Caetano, R., Field, C. A., Ramisetty-Mikler, S., & McGrath, C. (2005). The 5-year course of intimate partner violence among White, Black, and Hispanic couples in the United States. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20, 1039-1057.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is considered to be a serious public health issue. This study examined differences in IPV incidence, prevalence, and recurrence across three ethnic groups spanning a five year interval. Face-to-face interviews using standardized questionnaires included the following measures: the Conflict Tactics Scale to assess IPV; quantity and frequency of alcohol consumption as well as alcohol-related problems; psychosocial items concerning childhood physical abuse and childhood exposure to partner violence; approval of marital aggression; and sociodemographic items (e.g., ethnicity, income, and employment status). Results showed that patterns of prevalence, incidence, recurrence, and remission of IPV vary across ethnic groups and other demographic variables in such a way as to support sociostructural and social learning approaches to appreciating patterns of partner violence.

Topics: Male-female relations; prevalence; racial/ethnic differences

Clay-Warner, J., & Burt, C. H. (2005). Rape reporting after reforms: Have times really changed? Violence Against Women, 11, 150-176.

This article outlines changes in rape reporting behavior in the aftermath of reforms such as those instituted by rape shield statutes and definitional and evidentiary requirements for rape as a crime. Furthermore, the authors review the current literature on rape reform legislation, changes in reporting behaviors, and factors impacting the reporting of rape. In this study, analyses of data collected from the National Violence Against Women (NVAW) Survey demonstrated that, although rapes committed post-1990 are more likely to have been reported than those committed prior to 1974, despite legislative reforms in this domain simple rapes are under-reported in comparison to aggravated rapes.

Topics: Disclosure; legal responses; prevalence

Coyle, B. S., Wolan, D. L., & Van Horn, A. S. (1996). The prevalence of physical and sexual abuse in women veterans seeking care at a veterans affairs medical center. Military Medicine, 161, 588-593.

This study examines the prevalence of physical and sexual abuse in a sample of female veterans seeking care at a Veteran's Affairs Medical Center. The article discusses a military policy allowing services only for female veterans who were sexually assaulted while on duty. The study examines percentages of sexual assault in women while on active duty and occurrences of civilian rape. The authors argue that there are long-term consequences for all types of sexual abuse/assault.

Topics: Effects; military; prevalence

DeKeseredy, W. S., Rogness, M., & Schwartz, M. D. (2004). Separation/divorce sexual assault: The current state of social scientific knowledge. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 9, 675-691.

This article reviews some of the central concerns pertaining to women’s increased risk of not only lethal or nonlethal physical abuse, but their increased risk of sexual assault as well, during separation or divorce from cohabitation/marriage with an abusive male partner. Existing research on separation/divorce sexual assault is discussed covering definitions, prevalence rates and risk factors, and theoretical contributions of the contemporary research along with proposed recommendations concerning potential research on this topic. For example, the authors contend that multiple measures of sexual assault should be incorporated into any methodology examining separation/divorce sexual assault. Likewise, the role that societal patriarchy and gender inequality play in exacerbating “male proprietariness” (p. 686) may be one of the key factors that make exiting an abusive relationship even more challenging. Indeed, while support and intervention for victims of marital rape are woefully lacking, assistance to victims of separation/divorce sexual assault are presumed to be even less available.

Topics: Marital rape; prevalence; risk

Fisher, B. S., Cullen, F. T., & Daigle, L. E. (2005). The discovery of acquaintance rape: The salience of methodological innovation and rigor. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20, 493-500.

Research on sexual victimization over the past two decades has elucidated the prevalence of nonstranger rape (i.e., marital rape, acquaintance rape, and date rape). Central to this development has been the use of behaviorally specific questions on surveys administered to women in numerous studies – as briefly reviewed herein by the authors. In the face of such research, the authors also question how best to implement prevention strategies concerning women’s sexual victimization by nonstrangers. They focus on three areas: lifestyle patterns as examined by routine activities theory, the need to educate women without placing blame on them, and the recognition that evidence confirming which prevention strategies are effective has been, for the most part, inconclusive across studies.

Topics: Prevalence; prevention

Fitzgerald, M.M., Danielson, C.K., Saunders, B., & Kilpatrick, D.G. (2007).Youth victimization: Implications for prevention, intervention, and public policy. The Prevention Researcher, 14, 3-7. [Posted August 2007]

Key Points: Policies and practices are needed to minimize the harm of youth victimization by encouraging assessment, targeted prevention, and treatment interventions.  

Abstract: The authors review national prevalence rates of youth victimization, including: sexual, emotional or physical abuse; witnessing domestic or community violence; property crime; and excessive punishment. They note gender and race/ethnicity differences in prevalence rates as well as mental health effects. Specific recommendations for assessing risk and resiliency factors as well as screening for victimization in clinical settings are given. The authors discuss the importance of targeted interventions for specific groups, and urge adoption of an ecological model. Finally, the authors discuss how public and organizational policies can help decrease the impact of victimization and increase the availability of supportive services for youth and their families.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; effects; medical response; prevalence; prevention; racial/ethnic differences

Freedner, N., Freed, L., Yang, W., & Austin, S. (2002). Dating violence among gay, lesbian, and bisexual adolescents: Results from a community survey. Journal of Adolescent Health, 31, 469-474.

A growing concern within the public health domain is the impact that intimate partner violence is having not only among adults, but increasingly among adolescents as well. This study examined dating violence patterns among gay, lesbian, bisexual, and heterosexual adolescents sampled from a youth rights rally in the Northeast in 2000. The questionnaire included items concerning demographic variables (e.g., gender, sexual orientation, age, ethnicity, and living situation) as well as items adapted from the Massachusetts Youth Risk Behavior Survey, Victimization and Dating Relationships Survey, and Conflict Tactics Scale. Results revealed that bisexual males and females were most likely to be threatened with outing by a partner. Additionally, bisexual males were more likely to report some type of abuse while bisexual females had greater odds of reporting sexual abuse when compared with the heterosexual adolescents. Dating violence as a phenomenon among adolescents clearly requires further investigation.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; lesbian, gay, bisexual & transgender; prevalence

Goodman, L. A., Dutton, M. A., & Harris, M. (1995). Episodically homeless women with serious mental illness: Prevalence of physical and sexual assault. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 65, 468-478.

This study examines lifetime prevalence, severity, and recency of physical and sexual assault among homeless women diagnosed with serious mental illness. Results indicate a heightened risk for violent victimization with most respondents experiencing elevated levels of severe abuse beginning in childhood and continuing into adulthood. The study also examines the impact of ethnicity, education, and psychiatric diagnosis on levels of victimization. Implications for research and service delivery are discussed.

Topics: Prevalence; underserved populations

Gross, A. M., Winslett, A., Roberts, M., & Gohm, C. L. (2006). An examination of sexual violence against college women. Violence Against Women, 12, 288-300.

The purpose of the study was to examine the incidence and correlates of different forms of sexual victimization among a sample of college women. The sample consisted of 935 undergraduate female students who were recruited from introductory psychology classes and on-campus sororities. A questionnaire was administered to participants in small groups. The results showed that 27% of the women had experienced unwanted sexual contact since enrolling in college. Thirty-seven percent of the sample reported multiple forced sexual experiences. African-American women reported higher rates of sexual victimization compared to White women. Survivors and perpetrators reported high rates of alcohol consumption during the time of the sexual experience. Boyfriends were the most common perpetrator of sexual aggression. Implications for prevention efforts are discussed.

Topics: College; prevalence; risk

Hanley, M. J., & O'Neill, P. (1997). Violence and commitment: A study of dating couples. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 12, 685-703.

The authors administered the Conflict Tactics Scale and measures of emotional commitment to dating couples who were college students. Members of a couple were independently tested, so that they could not influence each others' response choices. Participants reported both committing and receiving acts of violence and verbal aggression. They also assessed both their own level of commitment and their perception of the commitment level of their partners. Overall, it became possible to examine three possible similarities: between the partners, between self-rating and perception of partner, and between rating of the partner and the partner's self-report. At least one member reported violence in one-third of couples, but prevalence dropped below 20% when taking into account both members' responses. There was little agreement about who did what to whom. Violent couples reported greater commitment to the relationship and were also more likely to disagree with each other's level of emotional commitment.

Topics: College; male-female relations; prevalence

 Heise, L., Ellsberg, M., & Gottemoeller, M. (1999). Ending violence against women. Population Reports, Series L, Number 11, 1-43.

This report provides an admirably thorough review of the various dimensions concerning violence against women across the globe. The authors begin by addressing the concept of gender-based violence, how health care providers can help, and what societal responses should entail in curbing the problem. The report discusses in detail the prevalence and ramifications of intimate partner abuse, sexual coercion, impact of violence on women’s reproductive health, threats to health and development, the role of health providers in recognizing and treating the effects of violence, and finally, an agenda for change. The report includes numerous charts presenting, for example, cross-cultural data on issues related to rates of approval of wife-beating and prevalence of forced first intercourse in various countries. The report also includes examples of posters used to educate women and increase awareness of the issues in different countries as well as several useful charts with instructions and guidelines for health care providers. This is an invaluable resource for anyone interested in understanding violence against women on a global level.

Topics: Community attitudes/responses; disclosure; effects; injury; male-female relations; marital rape; medical response; myths/stereotypes; perpetration; prevalence; prevention; racial/ethnic differences; risk; statistics; underserved populations; vulnerability

Hensley, C., Koscheski, M., & Tewksbury, R. (2005). Examining the characteristics of male sexual assault targets in a southern maximum-security prison. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20, 667-679.

The topic of prison sexuality, in particular male inmate sexual assault, has not received enough attention. In this paper, the authors present an overview of the literature concerning sexual victimization among inmates whereby the purpose of this study is to elucidate demographic and behavioral characteristics of targets of sexual assault within correctional facilities. The sample included 142 inmates from within a maximum-security correctional facility for men. Inmates were given a questionnaire that included items addressing consensual inmate sex and sexual coercion/assault. Results demonstrated that, while incarcerated, 18.3% of the sample had been sexual targets and 8.5% had been sexually assaulted. Additional findings are presented along with a discussion of the significance of sexual orientation as a risk factor for sexual victimization during incarceration.

Topics: Male rape; prevalence; prison rape; risk

Himelein, M., Vogel, R., & Wachowiak, D. (1994). Nonconsensual sexual experiences in pre-college women: Prevalence and risk factors. Journal of Counseling & Development, 72, 411-415.

This article discusses the need for education and prevention programs to target younger audiences (secondary school age) and to revise the counseling needs for college-age victims. The objective of the author's research is to profile pre-college women's history of consensual and nonconsensual sexual experiences. They also examine the occurrence of child sexual abuse and consensual sexuality activity as potential risk factors for sexual victimization in dating. Implications for counselors are discussed.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; prevalence; prevention; risk

Howard, D., & Wang, M. (2005). Psychosocial correlates of U.S. adolescents who report a history of forced sexual intercourse. Journal of Adolescent Health, 36, 372-379.

This study examined the psychological and behavioral correlates of forced sexuality among high school students (N = 13, 601). Participants were given the 2001 national school-based Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS). Results showed that 7.7% of high school adolescents had experienced forced sexual violence. Moreover, girls reported a 10.2% lifetime prevalence whereas boys reported a 5.1% lifetime prevalence of forced sex. Additional results yielded associations between a history of forced sexual violence and suicidal thoughts and behaviors as well as substance abuse and other risky behaviors. The authors emphasize the need for clinical applications of these findings and recognize the issue of forced sexual intercourse among adolescents as a growing public health concern.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; effects; prevalence

Ilies, R., Hauserman, N., Schwochau, S., & Stibal, J. (2003). Reported incidence rates of work-related sexual harassment in the United States: Using meta-analysis to explain reported rate disparities. Personnel Psychology, 56, 607-631.

The focus of this meta-analysis was to examine methodological and organizational factors that affect incidence rates of sexual harassment within the workplace and to present cumulative estimates of incidence rates. Specifically, researchers investigated the extent of sexual harassment, as measured by direct query and behavioral experiences, as well as the extent of the difference in incidence, as estimated by the use of these two sampling methods. Yet another auxiliary goal for researchers involved comparing possible differences between convenience and probability samples. Lastly, researchers hypothesized that structured bureaucratic organizations would tend to have more sexual harassment than organizations that are not as hierarchical. Results revealed that measures focused on assessing sexual harassment through direct questioning, combined with probability sampling, led to considerably lower estimates of sexual harassment incidence when compared to convenience sampling and measures using questionnaires that listed behaviors believed to constitute sexual harassment. Furthermore, findings suggest differences in reported incidence based on work location, with academia averaging the lowest on direct query sexual harassment while military samples averaged the highest. By combining multiple studies, researchers hope to further expand on research pertaining to sexual harassment.

Topics: Disclosure; harassment; prevalence

Irwin, C., & Rickert, V. (2005). Coercive sexual experiences during adolescence and young adulthood: A public health problem. Journal of Adolescent Health, 36, 359-361.

This editorial presents an overview of the articles published in its respective journal, the Journal of Adolescent Health (volume 36). As such, Irwin and Rickert summarize studies documenting patterns and prevalence of sexual violence among adolescents and young adults, risk factors associated with sexual violence among adolescents, treatment issues, the public health approach, prevention programs, and the need for screening of intimate partner violence.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; prevalence; risk

Kidd, S. & Scrimenti, K. (2004). Evaluating child and youth homelessness. Evaluation Review, 28, 325-341. [Posted August 2006.]

Key Points: This article presents an effective means of surveying homeless youth in an urban setting.

Abstract: This article describes an extensive effort to survey homeless youth in New Haven, Connecticut. Many issues related to surveying homeless youth are discussed. The findings of the survey suggest that approximately 1,688 children are homeless in New Haven each year, which is proportionally similar to larger urban areas. Their mothers are usually single with one or two children, and face significant difficult with meeting their most essential needs.

The strengths of the survey design used were its thoroughness and cost efficiency. From conducting the survey, the authors determined that accessing homeless youth on their own in small urban settings is more difficuly that in large urban setting. This is because fewer youth-oriented services are available in smaller cities.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; prevalence

Koss, M. P. (1993). Detecting the scope of rape: A review of prevalence research methods. Special Section: Rape. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 8, 198-222.

This article reviews rape prevalence research and investigates how differences in methodological approaches may affect the amount of rape detected. Factors such as how the sample is comprised, how an event is labeled, and how questions are phrased are examined. The author also reviews methods of recording, coding, entering, and analyzing data that should be considered when drawing conclusions about results. The article concludes by providing recommendations for strengthening the design of future studies.

Topics: Prevalence

Koss, M. P. (1996). The measurement of rape victimization in crime surveys. Criminal Justice & Behavior, 23, 55-69.

This article discusses the limitations of present crime surveys to detect intimate violence. It focuses on problems with, and redesign of, the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS). Methodological problems with the NCVS include the choice of language used in surveys, failed detection of sexual assaults, ambiguity in definitions of sexual assault, and the omission of certain populations – including victims under the age of 18 years – from the survey. Victimization estimates for the United States are compared to Canada, that revised its survey to approximate procedures followed in the Violence Against Women Survey. Canadian rates for sexual assault are six times greater than those for the United States, suggesting that sexual assault is grossly under-detected in the United States.

Topics: Prevalence; statistics

Koss, M. P., Gidycz, C. A., & Wisniewski, N. (1987). The scope of rape: Incidence and prevalence of sexual aggression and victimization in a national sample of higher education students. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 55, 162-170.

Inadequacies in the methods used to measure sexual assault impact national crime statistics, criminal victimization studies, convictions, or incarceration rates by causing them to fail in reflecting the true scope of rape. Studies that have avoided the limitations of these methods have revealed very high rates of overt rape and lesser degrees of sexual aggression. The goal of the present study was to extend previous work to a national basis. The Sexual Experiences Survey was administered to a national sample of 6,159 women and men enrolled in 32 institutions representative of the diversity of higher education settings across the United States. Women's reports of experiencing and men's reports of perpetrating, attempted rape, sexual coercion, and sexual contact were obtained, including both the rates of prevalence since age 14 and of incidence during the previous year. The findings support published assertions of high rates of rape and other forms of sexual aggression among large normal populations. Although the results are limited in generalizability to postsecondary students, this group represents 26% of all persons aged 18–24 years within the United States.

Topics: College; perpetration; prevalence; statistics

Koss, M. P., & Harvey, M. R. (1991). The crime of rape. In The rape victim: Clinical and community interventions (2nd ed., pp. 1-41). Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

Chapter 1: This chapter focuses on the crime of rape. Legal definitions, frequency, and causes of rape are highlighted. The authors discuss how incidence and prevalence numbers are generated.

Rape is no longer viewed exclusively from a criminal justice framework. Implications for women's health are also considered. The health burden of rape is investigated cross-culturally, focusing on its prevalence and psychological, sociocultural, somatic, and reproductive health consequences. Cross-cultural differences between normative and non-normative rape are explored. Problems such as the difficulties associated with collecting valid and reliable data, women's reluctance to report rape, and failure to accurately assess the aftereffects of rape are discussed. Conclusions focus on how research can improve the physical and mental health of women worldwide.

Topics: Effects; prevalence; statistics

Koss, M. P., Heise, L., & Russo, N. F. (1994). The global health burden of rape. Psychology of Women, [Special issue: Transformations: Reconceptualizing theory and research with women], 18, 509-537.

Rape is no longer viewed exclusively from a criminal justice framework. Implications for women's health are also considered. The health burden of rape is investigated cross-culturally, focusing on its prevalence and psychological, sociocultural, somatic, and reproductive health consequences. Cross-cultural differences between normative and non-normative rape are explored. Problems such as the difficulties associated with collecting valid and reliable data, women's reluctance to report rape, and failure to accurately assess the aftereffects of rape are discussed. Conclusions focus on how research can improve the physical and mental health of women worldwide.

Topics: Effects; prevalence; statistics

Kuecker, T. (1998). An analysis of statewide sexual assault service providers. Violence and Intentional Injury Prevention Program, 1, 5 pages.

This report is a survey conducted by the Michigan Sexual Assault Surveillance System (SASS) as part of the Violence and Intentional Injury Prevention Program (VI2P2). It was conducted for the purpose of assessing how agencies and service providers who come into contact with survivors of sexual assault collect and manage their data. The surveillance aspect of the SASS involves focusing on issues such as incidence, prevalence, morbidity, mortality, and economic costs of sexual violence. This report outlines the responses of 69 of the 148 agencies and service providers contacted by the SASS team. Results show that more than two-thirds of the agencies surveyed have a systematic method for collecting data on sexual assault. However, only one-third of these agencies had access to e-mail or other Internet services and less than a third of them were judged to be technologically behind current standards. The SASS team created a website for the agencies that can assist them in accessing sexual assault data and SASS briefing reports.

Topics: Evaluation; prevalence; rape crisis centers

Martin, S., Ray, N. Sotres-Alvarez, D., Kupper, L., Moracco, K., Dickens, P., et al. (2006). Physical and sexual assault of women with disabilities. Violence Against Women, 12, 823-837. [Posted October 2006.]

Key Points: Women with disabilities were more likely to experience sexual assault than women without disabilities in the past year. Both groups were equally likely to experience physical assault.

Abstract: This study looked at data from phone surveys completed by 5,326 women in North Carolina. Prevalence of physical, emotional, or mental disabilities was estimated at 26%. Sexual assault (forced sexual activity) was experienced by 1.5% of disabled women and 0.6% of women without disabilities in the past year. Women who self-identified as disabled and those with cognitive impairments were significantly more likely to have experienced sexual assault (2.1% and 1.7% respectively). Other factors associated with having experienced sexual violence were being under 40 years old and being non-white. Physical assault was experienced during the previous year by 2.0% of disabled women and 2.3% of non-disabled women. Results suggest that sexual violence and domestic violence services should ensure that their services are accessible to and appropriate for women with physical, emotional, and mental disabilities.

Women in institutional settings (care homes, prison, etc.) were not included in this study. Because only households with telephones were surveyed, these results cannot be generalized to women who live without telephones.

Topics: Disabled; prevalence

Maxwell, C., Robinson, A., & Post, L. (2003). The nature and predictors of sexual victimization and offending among adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 32, 465-477.

Many studies have been conducted investigating the factors surrounding adult sexual assault perpetration and victimization. Recently, studies on young adults and adolescents have revealed that alarmingly high rates of sexual assault victims are under the age of 18 years old. The purpose of this study was to investigate the prevalence and nature of sexual aggression among adolescents. Participants included 476 students from two high schools who volunteered to answer a self-report survey. This consisted of several measures: the RAPE Attitudes Scale, the Attitudes Toward Victims Scale, and the Legal Knowledge Scale. In addition, questions concerning demographics and dating behaviors were also included. Analyses of their responses indicated that almost half of the female students reported experiencing some form of sexual aggression and one-third of the male students reported having engaged in some form of sexual aggression. Additional differences across demographic variables were found to be significant. Among these, certain risk factors were evident; in particular, the likelihood of reporting victimization was higher among students who reported more frequent dating during the past month and/or dating various people during the previous six months. Furthermore, women not planning on attending college reported higher rates of sexual assault victimization. Legal knowledge about rape and positive attitudes towards women were correlated with lower levels of sexual assault perpetration among high school men. Implications for school-based prevention programs are reviewed.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; perpetration; prevalence; prevention; risk

McCabe, M. P., & Wauchope, M. (2005). Behavioral characteristics of men accused of rape: Evidence for different types of rapists. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 34, 241-253.

The purpose of this study was to produce a typology of rapists based on behavioral characteristics. The current literature focuses on four types of rapists: the anger rapist, the power exploitative rapist, the power reassurance rapist, and the sadistic rapist. Results supported the current typology with some degree of variation among the characteristics of the anger and power exploitative types. The authors recommend that future research on this topic should explore motivational and cognitive characteristics of rapists so as to better inform the current typology.

Topics: Perpetration; prevalence; theory

Merrill, L. L., Newell, C. E., Milner, J. S., Koss, M. P., Hervig, L. K., Gold, S. R., et al. (1998). Prevalence of premilitary adult sexual victimization and aggression in a Navy recruit sample. Military Medicine, 163, 209-212.

This article addresses the need for identifying, treating, educating, and preventing sexual assault among military recruits based on a survey of 3,776 US Navy recruits. Results from the survey revealed that 45.5% of the women had experienced attempted rape (9.4%) or completed rape (36.1%) prior to joining the Navy. Of the male recruits, 14.8% admitted committing attempted (3.5%) or completed rape (11.3%) prior to joining the Navy. Since sexual assault victims are likely to require psychological and/or physical treatment by health care providers and male perpetrators are likely to re-offend, it is crucial that the military address these issues among recruits so that intervention and prevention are possible.

Topics: Military; perpetration; prevalence; prevention; risk

Merrill, L. L., Newell, C. E., Thomsen, C. J., Gold, S. R., Milner, J. S., Koss, M. P., et al. (1999). Childhood abuse and sexual revictimization in a female Navy recruit sample. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 12, 211-225.

The authors surveyed 1,887 female Navy recruits in order to examine the effects of childhood abuse on adult rape. A total of 35% of recruits had been raped and 57% had experienced childhood physical abuse (CPA) and/or childhood sexual abuse (CSA). Controlling for CPA, rape was significantly (4.8 times) more likely among women who had experienced CSA than among women who had not. In contrast, CPA (controlling for CSA) was unrelated to likelihood of adult rape. The authors included alcohol problems and number of sex partners as mediators in their models. Although both variables predicted rape, their effects were independent of the effects of CSA. Finally, despite ethnic group differences in the prevalence of victimization, the predictors of rape did not differ significantly across ethnic groups.

Topics: Military; prevalence; risk; survivors

Messman-Moore, T. L. & Brown, A. L. (2006). Risk perception, rape, and sexual revictimization: A prospective study of college women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30, 159-172. [Posted January 2007.]

Key Points: Delayed responses to a hypothetical acquaintance rape scenario increased college women’s risks for rape and revictimization during an 8 month follow-up period.

Abstract: In this longitudinal study, 262 women completed a series of questionnaires four times over eight months. Rates of sexual victimization and rape experienced by participants were assessed over time. At baseline, 56.8% of the women had already experienced some form of sexual victimization in their lifetime.
Participants were asked to read two scenarios ending in rape, one involving a male acquaintance and the other a male stranger (scenarios are presented in the Appendix).  Women indicated at what point during the scenario they would feel uncomfortable and when they would leave the situation.

During the eight month follow-up period, 43.4% of participants reported some type of unwanted sexual experience, and 10% of the women were raped. Prior victimization and delayed risk response (i.e., leaving the hypothetical situation later in the scenario) were associated with increased likelihood of sexual victimization during the course of the study. 

The researchers recommended that prevention programs place more emphasis on risk-reduction behaviors rather than risk identification, and that acquaintance rape scenarios should be used more than stranger rape scenarios in sexual violence education programs.

Topics: College; prevalence; risk

Muehlenhard, C., & Linton, M. (1987). Date rape and sexual aggression in dating situations: Incidence and risk factors. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 34, 186-196.

This study assessed the incidence of, and risk factor, for date rape and other forms of male-against-female sexual aggression in dating situations. Results showed that 77.6% of the women and 57.3% of the men had been involved in some form of sexual aggression. Risk factors included the man initiating the date, paying all the expenses, and driving; miscommunication about sex; heavy alcohol or drug use; "parking”; men's acceptance of traditional sex roles, interpersonal violence, adversarial attitudes about relationships, and rape myths. The length of time that dating partners had known each other seemed unrelated to the risk of sexual assault. The authors discuss implications of their findings for rape prevention programs.

Topics: Alcohol; male-female relations; myths/stereotypes; perpetration; prevalence; risk

O'Sullivan, L. F., Byers, E. S., & Finkelman, L. (1998). A comparison of male and female college students' experiences of sexual coercion. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 22, 177-195.

The current research focuses on the phenomenology of men and women's experience of sexual coercion. College students (N = 433), who responded to an anonymous survey, were randomly selected as participants. More men than women reported being sexually coercive in the preceding year. Many similarities were noted between men and women in the context in which the coercion took place. Women expressed greater resistance to sexual coercion than men and had stronger negative emotional reactions. These findings emphasize the need to reassess current approaches to interpreting prevalence of sexual coercion and direct attention to the circumstances surrounding sexual coercion. These findings also accentuate the need to educate both men and women about men and women's sexuality and sexual socialization.

Topics: College; male-female relations; prevalence

Saunders, B. E., Kilpatrick, D. G., Hanson, R. F., Resnick, H. S., & Walker, M. E. (1999). Prevalence, case characteristics, and long-term psychological correlates of child rape among women: A national survey. Child Maltreatment: Journal of the American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children, 4, 187-200.

A national probability sample of 4,008 adult women (aged 18–69+ years) was screened by phone for a history of completed rape in childhood using the Incident Classification Interview (Kilpatrick et al., 1989). Characteristics of child rape incidents were also assessed. Respondents were evaluated for a history of major depressive episode, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and substance use problems. This study endeavored to: (1) determine the prevalence of a history of completed rape in childhood among adult women in the United States; (2) collect incident-characteristic data about child rapes to develop a national profile of these assaults; and (3) examine the increased risk, if any, that being the victim of at least one child rape presents to women for developing PTSD, major depression, and substance use problems. Results showed that childhood rape dramatically increases risk for the development of psychological problems. The article concludes with a discussion of the implications of these results for prevention, intervention, and future research.

Topics: Effects; prevalence; prevention; risk; survivors

Schwartz, M., O'Leary, S., & Kendziora, K. (1997). Dating aggression among high school students. Violence and Victims, 12, 294-305.

A sample of 228 (122 male and 106 female) high school students were surveyed to assess physical violence and aggression among dating partners. Links with parental aggression and justification of aggression during an argument were examined. In the total sample, 44% of the females and 16% of the males reported aggressive behavior against their partner in at least one incident, with the most popular form of aggression being pushing, grabbing, or shoving. Parental aggression was significantly predictive of male adolescent aggression but not predictive of female aggression. The results suggest distinctly different patterns of causation of dating aggression for males and females. Limitations of the study are discussed and some possible explanations for the results are addressed.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; prevalence

Spitzberg, B. H. & Cupach, W. R. (2007). The state of the art of stalking: Taking stock of the emerging literature. Aggression & Violent Behavior, 12, 64-86. [Posted April 2007.]

Key Points: The article provides a thorough overview and explanation of issues related to stalking based on the current published literature.

Abstract: This meta-analysis summarizes the results of 175 studies of stalking. In addition to looking at variations in prevalence between studies, the authors considered the definitions of stalking and described the closely-related set of behaviors termed “obsessive relational intrusion.” The authors created systematic typologies of types of stalkers, stalkers’ motivations, and types of stalking behaviors. Victims’ coping responses and the effects of stalking are also categorized. The majority of stalking victims are women. Because the majority of victims (79%) were acquainted with the stalker, and because half of all stalking was related to romantic relationships, the authors recommended looking at most stalking not only as criminal behavior or psychopathology, but as a type of “relationship terrorism” similar to other types of domestic violence.

Topics: Effects; perpetration; prevalence; stalking

Tjaden, P., & Thoennes, N. (2000b). Full report of the prevalence, incidence, and consequences of violence against women: Findings from the National Violence Against Women Survey (NCJ 183781). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice.

This report presents findings from the NVAW Survey on the prevalence and incidence of rape, physical assault, and stalking; the rate of injury among rape and physical assault victims; and injured victims' use of medical services. Among the many findings the authors indicate that: (1) 17.6% of all women surveyed said they had survived a completed or attempted rape at some time in their life, 54% of these women were under 18 when they were first raped. (2) 2.2% of men and 8.1% of women reported being stalked at some time in their life. (3) American Indian/Alaska Native women were significantly more likely than African American women, White women, or mixed-race women to report being raped. (4) Those women who reported they were raped prior to 18 years of age were twice as likely to report another rape as an adult. (5) Those women who reported that they were stalked prior to 18 were seven times more likely to indicate that they were stalked as an adult. (6) Women experience more intimate partner violence than men do. (7) 64.0 % of women vs. 16.2 % of men experience intimate partner violence (e.g., rape, physical assault, and/or stalking). (8) Women (31.5%) are much more likely than men (16.1%) to be injured during an assault. (9) When the perpetrator is a current or former intimate partner, the risk of injury to a woman increases. The authors discuss the findings in terms of their importance to intervention planners, policymakers, and legislators, as well as the criminal justice and public health communities. (*ADHS funded agencies can request a copy of this report by contacting the RPEP office. The report can also be obtained directly from publications section of the National Institute of Justice website: http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/.)

Topics: Prevalence; racial/ethnic differences; stalking

Tyler, K., Whitbeck, L., Hoyt, D., & Cauce, A. (2004). Risk factors for sexual victimization among male and female homeless and runaway youth. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 19, 503-520. [Posted August 2006.]

Key Points: Risk factors for sexual victimization differ between male and female homeless youth.

Abstract: Three-hundred and seventy-two homeless youth were interviewed, in order to examine the risk factors associated with being sexually victimized in this population. The study revealed that, for females, leaving home for the first time at an earlier age was associated with being victimized by an acquaintance or stranger. Engaging in deviant subsistence strategies, engaging in survival sex, and grooming (having a clean or pleasing physical appearance) were associated with being victimized by an aquaintance.

For males, victimization by strangers was associated with survival sex and grooming. Sexual orientation was associated with victimization by an aquaintance. Thirty-five percent of the total sample of homeless youth reported having been sexually victimized.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; prevalence; underserved populations

Vicary, J., Klingaman, L., & Harkness, W. (1995). Risk factors associated with date rape and sexual assault of adolescent girls. Journal of Adolescence, 18, 289-306.

This article discusses a research project which spanned four years, in which prevalence of and risk factors associated with unwanted sexual activity by dates/boyfriends was studied in a sample of rural, adolescent girls. Earlier age of menarche and sexual activity, as well as more sexually active same-sex friends, poor peer relationships, and poor emotional status were found to be significant predictors of sexual assault. Familial variables, such as living with both biological parents, church attendance, and quality of relationship between the subject and her family, were not found to be significant predictors of unwanted sexual activity.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; prevalence; risk

Wechsler, H., Dowdall, G., Maenner, G., Gledhill-Hoyt, J., & Lee, H. (1998). Changes in binge drinking and related problems among American college students between 1993 and 1997. Results of the Harvard School of Public Health College Alcohol Study. College Health, 47, 57-68.

In 1997 the Harvard School of Public Health conducted a repeat survey of 130 of the 140 colleges that participated in the 1993 College Alcohol Study. The original colleges surveyed were a random sample of 4-year colleges in the United States. Binge drinking as well as health and behavioral consequences of drinking were measured by using the results of completed questionnaires. Secondary binge effects of students, who were not current binge drinkers themselves, were examined. Alcohol-related sexual assault and unwanted sexual advances occurred almost exclusively to women. The results do not show significant change in binge drinking among college students.

Topics: Alcohol; college; prevalence

White, J. W., & Kowalski, R. M. (1998). Male violence toward women: An integrated perspective. In R. G. Geen & E. I. Donnerstein (Eds.), Human aggression: Theories, research, and implications for social policy (pp. 203-228). San Diego, CA: Academic Press, Inc.

This paper focuses on male intimate aggression/violence directed toward females. Single and multifactor theories that have been used to explain male violence against women are described. An integrative contextual developmental perspective is provided to organize information about violence against women. This model provides a meta-theoretical framework within which more specific theories and hypotheses can be considered. The evidence concerning the various forms of violence against women is summarized, including prevalence and characteristics of the perpetrator, victim, and circumstances surrounding each of the various forms of aggression. This approach is adopted to emphasize that an individual's behavior can be best understood by considering the impact of historical, sociocultural, and social factors across time on cognitive and motivational processes that result in aggression and violence.

Topics: Male-female relations; perpetration; prevalence; theory

Wolff, N., Blitz, C., Shi, J., Bachman, R., Siegel, J. (2006). Sexual violence inside prisons: Rates of victimization. Journal of Urban Health, 83, 835-848. [Posted October 2006.]

Key Points: Sexual victimization in prisons (including sexual contact and nonconsensual sex acts) occurs most frequently between female inmates.

Abstract: To estimate the prevalence of sexual violence in a prison system, male (n=6,964) and female inmates (n=564) in twelve prisons in a small eastern state completed a computer-assisted survey. Inmates were asked about incidents involving abusive sexual contact and non-consensual sex acts by other inmates or by prison staff within the last 6 months. Females reported inmate-on-inmate sexual violence at 212 incidents per 1000 inmates while males reported only 43 incidents per 1000 inmates. Rates of non-consensual sex (inmate on inmate) were 32 per 1000 for women and 15 per for men. Staff-on-inmate sexual victimization rates were the same for men and women (76 per 1000), with men reporting 19 per 1000 incidents of non-consensual sex vs. 17 per 1000 for women.

This study had a good response rate (average 39%) from all inmates housed in general population. Because rates of sexual violence varied by the site, future studies should look at factors that can minimize risks. Inmate experiences of trauma and disease from forced sex should be addressed to prevent them from contributing to the ill health of their community when they are released. 

Topics: Male rape; prevalence; prison rape; underserved populations

Wyatt, G. E. (1992). The sociocultural context of African American and White American women's rape. Journal of Social Issues, 48, 77-91.

This article examines cultural and ethnic factors affecting women's reactions and adjustments to sexual assault. Fifty-five African American and White American women (aged 18–36 years), reporting 146 incidents of attempted and completed rapes, were interviewed. There were no significant ethnic differences in the prevalence of rape. African Americans in this sample were less likely to disclose sexual assault. Women in both groups experienced lasting psychological effects, including emotional distress connected to the abuse, chronic depression, mistrust of people, men in particular, and specific fears.

Topics: Effects; racial/ethnic differences; prevalence; survivors

Young, A., Young, A. & Fullwood, H. (2007). Adolescent online victimization. The Prevention Researcher, 14, 8-9. [Posted April 2007.]

Key Points: As Internet use becomes more common, the number of youth exposed to online sexual solicitation, sexual material, and harassment (sexual or bullying) has increased.

Abstract: In a review of three recent studies, the authors estimated national prevalence of online victimization of youth at 13% for sexual solicitation; 34% for exposure to unwanted sexual material; and 9% for any type of harassment. The majority of incidents was not distressing and was not reported to adults.

Risk factors for online victimization included older age (youth 14-17 were at higher risk than younger children) and gender (girls were more likely to experience sexual solicitation or harassment than boys). In one study, 60% of youth gave out personal information in an online questionnaire or form. About 45% gave that information to someone they had met online.

Possible prevention strategies include frank discussion by adults about Internet victimization so that youth are better equipped to avoid it and deal with it if it happens. The authors recommended making youth aware of the possible consequences of sharing personal information online. Adults can also prepare youth to take action if they are victimized: removing themselves from the situation; changing screen name; and reporting the incident to prevent others from being victimized.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; harassment; media/ Internet; prevalence; prevention; risk

Updated 08/01/07