Abbey, A. (2005). Lessons learned and unanswered questions about sexual assault perpetration. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20, 39-42.

This article provides a brief overview of central elements characteristic of research on sexual assault perpetration. Most importantly, Abbey discusses the degree to which perpetrators actually “blend into society and cannot be easily pigeon holed” (p. 40) and highlights the focus of prevention programs that target victims rather than perpetrators. Given some of the drawbacks of interviews and questionnaires, the author proposes computer-assisted interviews (CASI) as the methodology with the most potential for providing accurate estimates of sexual assault prevalence and perpetration.

Topics: Perpetration; prevalence; prevention

Abbey, A., McAuslan, P., Zawacki, T., Clinton, A. M., & Buck, P. (2001). Attitudinal, experiential, and situational predictors of sexual assault perpetration. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 16, 784-807.

This study examines individual differences and situational factors involved in sexual assault by comparing descriptions of worst dates to descriptions of sexual assaults. Males (N = 343) were recruited at a large, urban university and asked to complete a questionnaire. Several self-report measures were included to assess: social desirability, gender role attitudes, alcohol-related attitudes, consensual sexual experiences history, previous experiences with misperception, peer support for nonconsensual sex, perpetration of sexual assault, characteristics of the sexual assault or worst date with a woman (i.e., the latter, if no sexual assault was reported), and characteristics of the sexual assault (including attributions of responsibility and outcomes). Results indicated that 33% of the sample had committed some type of sexual assault, of which 8% met the legal requirements to constitute an act of attempted or completed rape. Discriminant function analysis revealed that several variables differentiated perpetrators from nonperpetrators. These were: attitudes about gender roles and alcohol (i.e., hostile gender role beliefs, alcohol and sexual expectancies, approval for use of verbal pressure), past consensual sexual experience (i.e., number of previous partners), and characteristics of the situation (i.e., degree of familiarity, degree of isolation, role of alcohol during the interaction, duration of misperception, and prior consensual activity between the man and the woman involved). Additional analyses demonstrated that forced contacts, sexual coercions, and rapes could be differentiated along the following predictors: tactics used by perpetrators (i.e., verbal pressure, physical force, or alcohol/drugs), self-attributions related to the assault (i.e., regarding their behavior, alcohol consumption, and role of peer pressure), and outcomes (i.e., perception of seriousness and effect on the relationship between the man and the woman). The results of this study underscore the need to examine individual as well as situational variables that may differentiate between types of perpetrators and types of sexual assaults. In turn, such knowledge would enhance prevention activities.

Topics: Alcohol; college; male-female relations; perpetration

Anderson, I., & Swainson, V. (2001). Perceived motivation for rape: Gender differences in beliefs about female and male rape. Current Research in Social Psychology, 6, 107-123.

The present study directs attention to observers’ beliefs and perceptions about male and female rape. To date, there are two explanations for rape motivation; that rape is a sexually motivated act or that rape is an act motivated by power. Data from 120 participants suggests that rape is still regarded as being a crime motivated by sex rather than power. In addition, it is suggested that most men support the view of rape as a sexually motivated act despite the belief that the feminist explanation for rape (i.e., motivated by power) was becoming more acceptable to the general population.

Topics: Male-female relations; myths/stereotypes; perpetration

Archer, J., & Vaughan, A. (2001). Evolutionary theories of rape. Psychology, Evolution & Gender, 3, 95-101.

The purpose of this article is to review and discuss different evolutionary views of rape and their implications. Evolutionary theories are divided into views of rape as an adaptive strategy or as a by-product of other forms of adaptive behavior. These views are often criticized by feminists who support the view that rape is an exercise of power. However, in determining the origins of rape, the authors point out that forced mating has occurred in the animal kingdom predating patriarchal structures thereby weakening the power-related basis of feminist theories.

Topics: Perpetration; theory

Belknap, J. (1989). The sexual victimization of unmarried women by nonrelative acquaintances. In M. A. Pirog-Good & J. E. Stets (Eds.), Violence in dating relationships: Emerging social issues (pp. 205-218). New York: Praeger.

The focus of this study is to analyze the sexual victimization, by a casual or well-known acquaintance, of unmarried women 12 years of age and older. Data from the National Crime Victimization Survey is examined for the years 1973–1982. This research serves to address some of the neglected issues that apply to the rape of unmarried women; specifically, descriptions of the victims, the offenders, the offense, the response of the victims, and the degree of injury. The findings show the extent to which acquaintance rape occurs outside of the previously researched college student population. And it supports the emerging definition of date rape as a social problem. Suggestions for future research on date rape are made.

Topics: Effects; perpetration

Berg, D. R., Lonsway, K. A., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (1999). Rape prevention education for men: The effectiveness of empathy-induction techniques. Journal of College Student Development, 40, 219-234.

This article reports the results of a study in which 54 male undergraduates (mean age of 19.2 years) participated in a rape prevention education program that consisted of listening to an audiotape of a man or woman describing their experience of being raped. After two weeks, the male students who listened to the female tape reported an increased likelihood to engage in rape-supportive behaviors and no difference in empathy or rape-supportive attitudes. The authors caution that it is important to use care if attempting to implement this type of intervention.

Topics: College; prevention; perpetration

Bergen, R. & Bukovec, P. (2006). Men and intimate partner rape: characteristics of men who sexually abuse their partner. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21, 1375-1384. [Posted October 2006.]

Key Points: Among men enrolled in an abuse intervention program, more than half said they had committed at least one kind of sexual abuse against their most recent female partner.

Abstract: Men enrolling in an abuse intervention program completed questionnaires (n=229) that included 17 items about sexually violent or coercive acts with their most recent female partner, ranging from emotionally coercing her to have sex against her will to physically forcing her to have sex with the perpetrator, other people, animals, or objects. Fifty-three percent of the men said they had committed at least one kind of sexual abuse. The most common act of abuse (40%) was emotionally coercing a partner to have sex when she did not want to. Fourteen percent of men used physical force at least once. Seventeen percent admitted to having sex with a partner when she was unable to consent (including while she slept).

Limits of the study include generalizability: 65% of men in the study were court-ordered to the intervention program, and one-third were self-referred. Almost half of the men were African-American. Care should be taken when reviewing the data in the study; the authors mix reports of their results with information from other studies, which may be confusing. Terms such as “sexual assault,” “rape,” and “sexual abuse” are used interchangeably.

Topics: Marital rape; perpetration

Berkowitz, A. (1992). College men as perpetrators of acquaintance rape and sexual assault: A review of recent research. Journal of American College Health, 40, 175-181.

This article proposes an integrated theory of sexual assault and provides a review of literature on the perpetration of acquaintance rape and sexual assault by college men. Topics covered include: (a) how rape is defined, (b) the incidence of acquaintance rape and sexual assault, (c) characteristics of perpetrators, (d) situational correlates of sexual assault, and (e) men's misperception of women's sexual intent. The need to develop effective rape-prevention programs for men is discussed.

Topics: College;male-female relations; perpetration

Budin, L. E., & Johnson, C. F. (1989). Sex abuse prevention programs: Offenders’ attitudes about their efficacy. Child Abuse and Neglect, 13, 77-87.

This study assessed sex abuse prevention education methods for children by drawing upon input from 72 convicted sex abusers at a correctional facility in Ohio. Perpetrators were surveyed concerning how they approached children, how they solicited children as victims, how they prevented children from reporting, and how they would prevent the sexual abuse of children. Results revealed that incestuous perpetrators used similar tactics as non-incestuous perpetrators to gain the trust of children. However, certain methods were used more frequently by incestuous perpetrators than non-incestuous perpetrators. For example, non-incestuous perpetrators were more likely to give their victims toys, to use the victim’s friend, and to acquire victims who had been previously victimized by the perpetrator’s friends. Overall, perpetrators tended to focus their tactics on children who were described as passive, troubled, lonely, and from broken homes. The perpetrators’ perceptions of the efficacy of sex abuse prevention methods were also assessed. The perpetrators in this study suggest that children should be taught to report abuse, to say “no” to assailants, to be educated about proper handling of their genitalia, and to refrain from getting into cars with strangers. While there are significant limitations to this type of study, input from abusers may provide useful information for strengthening child abuse prevention programs.

Topics: Perpetration; prevention; vulnerability

Coxell, A. W., & King, M. B. (1996). Male victims of rape and sexual abuse. Sexual & Marital Therapy, 11, 297-308.

This article reviews the sexual assault of adult males. A number of myths concerning the survivors, perpetrators, and plausibility of such assaults are critically examined. Sexual assault prevalence data from 1,480 males is presented. The results from a study of coercion in gay relationships is also included. The problems that males reported after sexual assault are discussed. These problems include: PTSD, sexual problems, difficulties forming close relationships, mistrust of adult men, suicide attempts, confusion about sexual orientation, and various mood disorders. Sexual assault by females (which is comparatively rare) tends to leave men less traumatized than sexual assaults by men because these types of assaults are less likely to involve physical force and because same-sex sexual contact, which is traumatic in itself to heterosexual males, is not involved.

Topics: Effects; male rape; perpetration; survivors

Davis, K. C., Norris, J., George, W. H., Martell, J., & Heiman, J. R. (2006). Men’s likelihood of sexual aggression: The influence of alcohol, sexual arousal, and violent pornography. Aggressive Behavior, 32, 581-589. [Posted April 2007.]

Key Points: Men’s sexual arousal to a hypothetical rape story predicted their self-reported likelihood of acting like the aggressor in the scenario.  

Abstract: A total of 84 male social drinkers between 21-45 years old were randomly assigned to a group that received alcohol or a group that did not. Both groups were then asked to read one of two rape scenarios which differed by whether the victim experienced pleasure during the rape. Three factors related to sexual response were measured: alcohol intoxication; belief that intoxicated women were vulnerable to sexual coercion; and a victim’s positive sexual response to rape.

The single factor that predicted reporting likelihood of sexual aggression was a high level of sexual arousal. Intoxication and belief in drinking women’s vulnerability were not directly linked to increased aggression, although they were related to arousal. Both sober and intoxicated men reported greater arousal when the victim’s response in the scenario was positive. If any of the factors were present without increased arousal, they were not related to increased aggression.

Limits of the study included testing only two levels of intoxication (sober or drunk), self-report of arousal without physiological measures, and lack of measurement of men’s actual aggressive behavior. The study did not look at how likely men were to report the probability of aggressive sexual behavior if they were not exposed to violent pornography.

Topics: Alcohol; myths/stereotypes; perpetration

Dean, K. E., & Malamuth, N. M. (1997). Characteristics of men who aggress sexually and of men who imagine aggressing: Risk and moderating variables. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 72, 449-455.

This study used 323 male participants from an introductory psychology course who filled out a questionnaire regarding sexual aggression and self-portrayal in order to determine risk factor characteristics. The findings show that the extent to which risk factors translate into actual sexual aggression depends on the magnitude to which the man is self-centered versus caring about others’ feelings. When a man is at high risk of being sexually aggressive, if he is self-centered, then he is more likely to be sexually aggressive than when he is sensitive to others’ feelings. It was also found that the nurturant group actually had greater fantasized sexual aggression than the self-centered group had. The implications of therapeutic intervention are also discussed.

Topics: Perpetration; risk

Dombrowski, S. C., LeMasney, J. W., Ahia, C. E., & Dickson, S. A. (2004). Protecting children from online sexual predators: Technological, psychoeducational, and legal considerations. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 35, 65-73.

The authors highlight the need for professional psychologists, educators, parents, and other individuals who care for children and youth to increase their understanding of the risks of online sexual solicitation. The aim of the article is to increase awareness and promote the protection of youth from sexual predators who use the Internet. The first section is an overview of predator and victim characteristics and grooming behaviors. The second is a discussion of how predators use the Internet for sexual solicitation. The third section is a description of technological and psychoeducational methods for preventing online solicitation. The conclusion presents guidelines and legal considerations for practicing psychologists.

Topics: Media/internet; perpetration; prevention

Follingstad, D. R., Bradley, R. G., Laughlin, J. E., & Burke, L. (1999). Risk factors and correlates of dating violence: The relevance of examining frequency and severity levels in a college sample. Violence & Victims, 14, 365-380.

The author examines risk factors for dating violence using self-reported methods. In all, 327 female and 290 male 1st-year college students were questioned about their exposure to violence. Students completed 12 measures that asked questions about coping skills, dating violence, and the use and perceived effectiveness of violence and control in interpersonal relationships. Results indicate that students that self-reported dating violence attributed it primarily to efforts to control the actions of their dating partner. Stress and communication issues played a large part, as did jealousy and difficulty dealing with anger. Men who reported committing dating violence tended to have more alcohol problems. The researchers indicate that there were no major differences in negative evaluation apprehension, self-esteem, or problem-solving skills between nonviolent and violent groups.

Topics: College; male-female relations; perpetration; risk

Geer, J. H., Estupinan, L. A. , & Manguno-Mire, G. M. (2000). Empathy, social skills, and other relevant cognitive processes in rapists and child molesters. Aggression & Violent Behavior, 5, 99-126.

The authors review the literature and present general empirical findings concerning patterns of empathy, social skills, and other cognitive processes (i.e., theories, attitudes, and distorted cognitions) of incarcerated sex offenders or those who have identified themselves as sex offenders. They offer a discussion of specific cognitive models that may account for the data. The article reviews the cognitive-behavioral treatments that have been applied to sex offenders with the stated goal of modifying the processes that are being examined. The final section attempts to summarize and highlight some of the identified problems and weaknesses in the study of the aforementioned processes in sex offending. The authors argue that too little attention has been paid to basic cognitive psychology and the role that cognitions or conceptualizations can play in promoting the understanding of the sex offender. They suggest that following the information-processing approach as a generalized model will help integrate and direct research efforts.

Topics: Perpetration

Gray, H. M., & Foshee, V. (1997). Adolescent dating violence: differences between one-sided and mutually violent profiles. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 12, 126-141.

This study investigated prevalence and severity of adolescent dating violence. Participants included 185 students (from 6th to 12th grades), who responded to a questionnaire about dating violence and were classified as victim-only, perpetrator-only, or mutually-violent. Results indicated that most dating violence prevention and treatment programs are based on the one-sided violent relationship. However, the most common profile for dating violence is the mutually-violent relationship. Limitations of this study included: the omission of gender differences in severity as well as consequences of, reactions to, and initiation of physical violence. An additional limitation involved not accounting for sexual violence perpetrated by males and subsequent female use of physical violence.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; perpetration

Hanson, R. K., & Harris, A. J. R. (2000). Where should we intervene?: Dynamic predictors of sexual assault recidivism. Criminal Justice & Behavior, 27, 6-35.

The authors interviewed community supervision officers and reviewed the files on 208 sexual offense recidivists and 201 nonrecidivists, with an eye to collecting data on dynamic (changeable) risk factors. They found that the recidivists generally had poor social supports, attitudes tolerant of sexual assault, antisocial lifestyles, poor self-management strategies, and difficulties cooperating with supervision. The recidivists and nonrecidivists were similar in terms of overall mood, but the recidivists showed increased anger and subjective distress just before re-offending. Dynamic risk factors continued to be strongly associated with recidivism, even after controlling for preexisting differences in static risk factors. The factors identified in the interview data were reflected (to a lesser extent) in the officers' contemporaneous case notes, suggesting that the interview findings are not completely attributable to retrospective recall bias.

Topics: Perpetration; risk

 Heise, L., Ellsberg, M., & Gottemoeller, M. (1999). Ending violence against women. Population Reports, Series L, Number 11, 1-43.

This report provides an admirably thorough review of the various dimensions concerning violence against women across the globe. The authors begin by addressing the concept of gender-based violence, how health care providers can help, and what societal responses should entail in curbing the problem. The report discusses in detail the prevalence and ramifications of intimate partner abuse, sexual coercion, impact of violence on women’s reproductive health, threats to health and development, the role of health providers in recognizing and treating the effects of violence, and finally, an agenda for change. The report includes numerous charts presenting, for example, cross-cultural data on issues related to rates of approval of wife-beating and prevalence of forced first intercourse in various countries. The report also includes examples of posters used to educate women and increase awareness of the issues in different countries as well as several useful charts with instructions and guidelines for health care providers. This is an invaluable resource for anyone interested in understanding violence against women on a global level.

Topics: Community attitudes/responses; disclosure; effects; injury; male-female relations; marital rape; medical response; myths/stereotypes; perpetration; prevalence; prevention; racial/ethnic differences; risk; statistics; underserved populations; vulnerability

Kopper, B. A. (1996). Gender, gender identity, rape myth acceptance, and time of initial resistance on the perception of acquaintance rape blame and avoidability. Sex Roles, 34, 81-93.

This study investigated the role of gender, rape myth acceptance, and time of initial resistance in assigning blame to the victim, perpetrator, situation and chance following an acquaintance rape, as well as perceived degree of avoidability of the assault. Undergraduate students (N = 534) read one of two acquaintance rape scenarios. Then they completed a set of measures including the Bem Sex-Role Inventory, the revised Rape Myth Acceptance Scale, and a demographics questionnaire. Results indicated that acceptance of rape myths and the length of initial resistance determined the assignment of blame and the perception of avoidability of a sexual assault. When resistance occurred early in the encounter, men and women attributed significantly less blame to the victim and situation, attributed more blame to the perpetrator, and were less likely to believe the sexual assault could have been avoided. The hypothesis that those endorsing traditional gender-role types would be more likely to blame the victim following an acquaintance rape was not supported.

Topics: Myths/stereotypes; perpetration

Koss, M. P. (2000b). Evolutionary models of why men rape: Acknowledging the complexities. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 1, 182-190.

This article discusses the limitations of Thornhill and Palmer's (2000) book, “A Natural History of Rape: Biological Bases of Sexual Coercion.” The author asserts that Thornhill and Palmer contrast evolutionary and feminist theories in a manner meant to encourage media attention; that they attempt to present their work as a battle of evolution versus the social sciences; and that they present two alternative hypotheses of human rape – namely, that rape is either a special adaptive strategy or that it is a by-product of male sexual desire and preference for higher numbers of sexual partners – but then fail to address the latter hypothesis. This critique also points out that Thornhill and Palmer make little use of empirical findings from the field of sexual assault research and that the majority of the empirical data actually challenges their findings. The author specifically disputes a number of Thornhill and Palmer's assertions by pointing out that: 1) many rape victims are children, not women of reproductive age, 2) women of childbearing years have not been shown to experience the most distress postvictimization, 3) emotional distress does not vary with the rapist's level of violence, 4) all forms of unwanted penetration is traumatic for women of all ages, and 5) although rapists rarely kill, life threat is high. The author also states that Thornhill and Palmer's prevention recommendations are naïve and harmful and concludes that “A Natural History of Rape” has made it more difficult to advocate for the explanatory role of evolutionary factors in research on violence against women.

Topics: Male-female relations; perpetration; theory

Koss, M. P., & Cleveland, H. H. (1997). Stepping on toes: Social roots of date rape lead to intractability and politicization. In M. D. Schwartz (Ed.), Researching sexual violence against women: Methodological and personal perspectives (pp. 4-21). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

This article discusses approaches to understanding rape and sexual aggression. The authors contend that rape-supportive environments encourage sexually aggressive men to act on their impulses and discourage women from identifying and reporting experiences of victimization. Coercive beliefs and aggressive behaviors are examined as part of our cultural understanding of sexuality. The authors address why this area of research is politicized and what this politicization means.

Topics: Male-female relations; risk; perpetration; vulnerability

Koss, M. P., Gidycz, C. A., & Wisniewski, N. (1987). The scope of rape: Incidence and prevalence of sexual aggression and victimization in a national sample of higher education students. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 55, 162-170.

Inadequacies in the methods used to measure sexual assault impact national crime statistics, criminal victimization studies, convictions, or incarceration rates by causing them to fail in reflecting the true scope of rape. Studies that have avoided the limitations of these methods have revealed very high rates of overt rape and lesser degrees of sexual aggression. The goal of the present study was to extend previous work to a national basis. The Sexual Experiences Survey was administered to a national sample of 6,159 women and men enrolled in 32 institutions representative of the diversity of higher education settings across the United States. Women's reports of experiencing and men's reports of perpetrating, attempted rape, sexual coercion, and sexual contact were obtained, including both the rates of prevalence since age 14 and of incidence during the previous year. The findings support published assertions of high rates of rape and other forms of sexual aggression among large normal populations. Although the results are limited in generalizability to postsecondary students, this group represents 26% of all persons aged 18–24 years within the United States.

Topics: College; perpetration; prevalence; statistics

Lacasse, A. & Mendelson, M. J. (2007). Sexual coercion among adolescents: Victims and perpetrators. Violence Against Women, 22, 424-437. [Posted April 2007.]

Key Points: In a small sample of students in Grades 8-11, sexist beliefs were associated with being a victim of sexual harassment or coercion among girls and with perpetrating sexual harassment or coercion among boys.

Abstract: Students in a suburban Quebec school were asked if other students had verbally harassed them, made non-coercive sexual contact (e.g., unwanted kissing) or attempted to obtain sexual favors using blackmail or force in the previous 3 months. They were also asked if they had perpetrated those acts on another student. The study included 37 students who reported being victimized and 21 who reported perpetrating the behavior. These groups were then compared with a matched control sample of students.

Female students who were victims (n=27) were more likely to endorse sexist attitudes than other girls; boys who were perpetrators were more likely to endorse sexist attitudes than other boys. All victims were more likely to use drugs and alcohol than controls or perpetrators. Both victims and perpetrators were involved with more deviant behaviors than controls.

Limitations of this study include: a small sample size; students were only asked about peer-related behaviors outside of romantic relationships, which may have resulted in underreporting of victimization; and the perceived severity of the experiences was not assessed.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; harassment; myths/stereotypes; perpetration

Lalumiere, M. L., Chalmers, L. J., Quinsey, V. L., & Seto, M.C. (1996). A test of the mate deprivation hypothesis of sexual coercion. Ethology and Sociobiology, 17, 299-318.

The mate deprivation hypothesis states that males who have more limited access to mates are more likely to resort to sexual coercion. This study uses a sample of 156 undergraduate college males from a Canadian University to test this hypothesis. Access to mates was indexed and sexual coercion was rated using Koss’ sexual experiences survey. The results did not support the hypothesis. Sexually coercive males had (nonsignificantly) higher perceived mating success and significantly more sexual experience. The limitations of this study are addressed and further study and analyses suggested.

Topics: Male-female relations; perpetration

Lalumiere, M. L., & Quinsey, V. L. (1994). The discriminability of rapists from non-sex offenders using phallometric measures: A meta-analysis. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 21, 150-175.

The meta-analysis presented in this article was conducted in an effort to determine if there is a difference between rapists and non-sex offenders using phallometric measures. Possible variables were sought to determine the degree to which the rapists and non-sex offenders are distinguishable. The findings show that rapists respond more to brutal and graphic rape cues and non-sex offenders respond to cues of consenting sex. The limitations of this study are discussed.

Topics: Perpetration; risk

Lanier, C. A. (2001). Rape-accepting attitudes: Precursors to or consequences of forced sex. Violence Against Women, 7, 876-885. [Posted April 2007.]

Key Points: Acceptance of rape myths predicted subsequent sexual aggression among a group of middle school and high school boys.

Abstract: This study sought to answer the questions: does rape-myth acceptance precede perpetration of sexual violence, or does the perpetrator justify their actions by adopting rape-accepting attitudes?

Boys from 14 middle schools and high schools in rural North Carolina were surveyed. They were asked if they had ever forced a date to have sex or forced a date to do something sexual. They were also asked to rate their agreement with common rape myths. One year later, 851 boys completed a second survey. Those who were more accepting of rape myths initially were more likely to report perpetration. Perpetration did not result in increased acceptance of rape myths.

This study suggested that curriculum targeting rape myth-accepting attitudes accepting of rape myths may reduce forced sex by adolescent males.

Some limitations of this study include: boys may have been reluctant to self-identify as perpetrators, fearing that they could be identified; they may have indicated a lower acceptance of rape myths than they really felt; and they were not asked to define what “doing something sexual” meant to them.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; evaluation; myths/stereotypes; perpetration; prevention

Lisak, D., & Roth, S. (1988). Motivational factors in nonincarcerated sexually aggressive men. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 55, 795-802.

The purpose of this study was to determine whether some of the factors that underlie power and anger motivations in convicted rapists are also applicable to self-reported sexually aggressive men. The subjects of this experiment were 184 junior and senior men enrolled in various psychology classes who completed the Sexual Experiences Questionnaire. The findings show that some of the factors that underlie the anger and power motivations of convicted rapists may also be applicable to non-incarcerated sexually aggressive college men. Future research is suggested.

Topics: Perpetration; risk

Loh, C., Gidycz, C. A., Lobo, T. R., & Luthra, R. (2005). A prospective analysis of sexual assault perpetration: Risk factors related to perpetrator characteristics. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20, 1325-1348.

The purpose of the study was to assess perpetrator risk factors for committing sexual assault. The risk factors under investigation included peer influences, beliefs and attitudes about sexuality, alcohol use, and token resistance. A longitudinal design was implemented and included a baseline, 3-month follow-up, and 7-month follow-up. Out of 325 undergraduate male students, 215 participated in all three assessment periods. Approximately one third (31.2%) of the participants reported engaging in sexually aggressive behaviors after age 14 and before starting the study. The prospective analyses showed that history of sexual perpetration and fraternity membership at baseline were significant predictors of sexual aggression during the 3-month time period. Significant predictors of sexual aggression during the 7-month time period were sexual perpetration during the 3-month follow-up and adversarial heterosexual beliefs. Other variables were not significant predictors. The impact of the findings on sexual assault prevention programs for men is discussed.

Topics: College; perpetration; risk

Malamuth, N. M., Addison, T., & Koss, M. (2000). Pornography and sexual aggression: Are there reliable effects and can we understand them? Annual Review of Sex Research, 11, 26-91.

The authors are responding to recent critiques of their work. Their responses delineate the arguments and data presented in those commentaries; integrate the findings of several meta-analytic summaries of experimental and naturalistic research; and statistically analyze a large representative sample. The responses support the existence of reliable associations between frequent pornography use and sexually aggressive behaviors, particularly for violent pornography and/or for men at high risk for sexual aggression. The authors suggest that relatively aggressive men interpret and react to the same pornography differently than do nonaggressive men. This perspective can help to integrate the current analyses with studies comparing rapists and nonrapists as well as with cross-cultural research.

Topics: Perpetration; risk; statistics

Malamuth, N. M., Linz, D., Heavey, C. L., Barnes, G., et al. (1995). Using the confluence model of sexual aggression to predict men's conflict with women: A 10-year follow-up study. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 69, 353-369.

The research presented in this article analyzes some of the characteristics of men who are likely to engage in sexual aggression. Sexual aggression is divided into two potential types: hostile masculinity and promiscuous-impersonal sexual orientation. The sample consisted of a group of men who were studied, through self-reports, in early adulthood and then subsequently studied, also through self-reports, ten years later. Some of the female partners of these men were also questioned. Using the confluence model of sexual aggression, it was determined that several variables can be identified as contributing to men’s sexual aggression and other conflicts with women. Future research is discussed.

Topics: Male-female relations; perpetration; risk

Marx, B. P., Miranda, R., Jr., & Meyerson, L. A. (1999). Cognitive-behavioral treatment for rapists: Can we do better? Clinical Psychology Review, 19, 875-894.

This article provides an overview of current cognitive-behavioral treatment strategies being used with sexual offenders and addresses the specific reasons why such treatments present limited success. Current strategies emphasize control of deviant sexual arousal, modification of cognitive distortions, skills training, biological treatments, and relapse prevention. Adult rapists differ from other sexual offenders (i.e., child sex offenders) on various dimensions. For example, the behavior of rapists can range from unsolicited verbal behavior to brutal sexual assaults. Other sex offenders usually do not display such variety in behavior. Consequently, the heterogeneity among them needs to be addressed in treatment strategies as well. Physiological, emotional, and cognitive states contribute toward sexually deviant behavior in a complex response pattern and not necessarily as individual causative factors. That kind of approach is too simplistic. Furthermore, the functional differences in the behavior of rapists is rarely examined and should provide a focus for treatment as well. The authors conclude by proposing an idiographic approach to treatment that implements a functional analysis to inform treatment protocol, promotes psychological acceptance, and addresses characterological and interpersonal issues during treatment.

Topics: Perpetration; treatment

Maxwell, C. D., Robinson, A. L. & Post, L. A. (2003a). The impact of race on the adjudication of sexual assault and other violent crimes. Journal of Criminal Justice, 31, 523-538.

Some scholars have proposed that, among violent crimes, sexual assault is handled in a tolerant and biased manner. The purpose of this study was to ascertain the differential adjudication of violent crimes, with particular emphasis on sexual assault as it pertains to race. A subsample of 41,151 cases was selected from the National Pretrial Reporting Program, consisting of adult males charged with murder or attempted murder, sexual assault, robbery, or assault. The authors ran a logistic regression model to test a “leniency hypothesis” that, among violent crimes, sexual assault was given the most leniency, and among racial groups, Whites were given the most leniency. Results revealed limited support for either assertion, finding judicial decisions to be modified by crime category and race. On average, men charged with sexual assault were treated more leniently than those charged with murder but were treated more severely than those charged with assault or robbery. For crimes other than sexual assault, Whites were found to receive more clemency than minorities. The authors contend this finding indicates the devalued status of minorities in general and of female minority victims in particular. The authors conclude that a number of additional factors require consideration (e.g., socioeconomic status, employment, relationship of offender to victim, level of victim cooperation, and victim characteristics) in order to fully understand the adjudication of sexual assault cases as they intersect with race.

Topics: Legal responses; perpetration; racial/ethnic differences

McCabe, M. P., & Wauchope, M. (2005). Behavioral characteristics of men accused of rape: Evidence for different types of rapists. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 34, 241-253.

The purpose of this study was to produce a typology of rapists based on behavioral characteristics. The current literature focuses on four types of rapists: the anger rapist, the power exploitative rapist, the power reassurance rapist, and the sadistic rapist. Results supported the current typology with some degree of variation among the characteristics of the anger and power exploitative types. The authors recommend that future research on this topic should explore motivational and cognitive characteristics of rapists so as to better inform the current typology.

Topics: Perpetration; prevalence; theory

Mitchell, K. J., Finkelhor, D., & Wolak, J. (2005). The Internet and family and acquaintance sexual abuse. Child Maltreatment, 10, 49-60.

The purpose of the study was to examine how offenders use the Internet to commit sexual abuse. A subset of the data from the National Juvenile Online Victimization Study was analyzed. The dataset consisted of 126 arrests involving family or acquaintance sexual offenders. Family and acquaintance offenders constituted 18% of all arrests for Internet crimes during a 1-year period starting in 2000. Family offenders were more likely to commit crimes against female victims under the age of 12, whereas acquaintance offenders were more likely to commit crimes against male teenagers. The authors identified five primary ways that the Internet was used in sex crimes: 1) seduction and grooming, 2) storing and disseminating child pornography to other offenders, 3) arranging meeting times and communicating with victims, 4) rewarding and enticing minors into the offender's home, and 5) advertising or selling minors to other offenders. Implications for prevention messages and investigation approaches are discussed.

Topics: Media/internet; perpetration; prevention

Moffitt, T. E., & Caspi, A. (1999). Findings about partner violence from the Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study. National Institute of Justice: Research in Brief, 1-12.

This report summarizes the results of a study conducted on a birth cohort of 1,037 men and women born in New Zealand between April 1, 1972 and March 31, 1973. The Dunedin researchers focused on partner violence as a potential example of antisocial behavior during childhood and teenage delinquency carried over into adulthood. Results of the study revealed that partner violence is associated with risk factors in childhood and adolescence involving poverty and low academic achievement for men and harsh family discipline and parental discord for women. Mental illness was present among 65% of females exposed to physical abuse and among 88% of the male perpetrators. The strongest risk factor for male and female perpetrators of partner violence involved a history of physically aggressive behavior prior to the age of 15 years. The findings from this study suggest that three intervention tactics are necessary to reduce partner violence in adulthood. The first needs to teach teenagers to avoid using violence against their partners. The second strategy involves interventions with young parents to reduce their stress and subsequently reduce the potential for exposure of their children to violence within the home. Lastly, given the findings that perpetrators of partner violence tend to be mentally ill and engage in other violent crimes, intervention needs to draw upon the interaction of law enforcement, the judicial system, and the mental health profession.

Topics: Marital rape; perpetration; prevention; risk; underserved populations

Muehlenhard, C., & Linton, M. (1987). Date rape and sexual aggression in dating situations: Incidence and risk factors. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 34, 186-196.

This study assessed the incidence of, and risk factor, for date rape and other forms of male-against-female sexual aggression in dating situations. Results showed that 77.6% of the women and 57.3% of the men had been involved in some form of sexual aggression. Risk factors included the man initiating the date, paying all the expenses, and driving; miscommunication about sex; heavy alcohol or drug use; "parking”; men's acceptance of traditional sex roles, interpersonal violence, adversarial attitudes about relationships, and rape myths. The length of time that dating partners had known each other seemed unrelated to the risk of sexual assault. The authors discuss implications of their findings for rape prevention programs.

Topics: Alcohol; male-female relations; myths/stereotypes; perpetration; prevalence; risk

Mullen, P. E., Pathe, M., Purcell, R., & Stuart, G. W. (1999). Study of stalkers. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 1244-1249.

The authors described behaviors, motivations, and psychopathology of 145 stalkers who were referred to a forensic psychiatric center for treatment. The majority of the stalkers were men (79%). Many stalkers were unemployed (39%) and 52% had never been in an intimate relationship. Victims included ex-partners (30%), professional or work contacts (34%), and strangers (14%). Five types of stalkers are described: rejected, intimacy-seeking, incompetent, resentful, and predatory. Delusional disorders were common (30%), especially among intimacy-seeking stalkers, although those with personality disorders predominate among rejected stalkers. The duration of stalking behaviors ranged from 4 weeks to 20 years with the longest duration found among rejected and intimacy-seeking stalkers. Of the stalkers, 63% made threats and 36% were assaultive. Threats and property damage tended to be more frequent with resentful stalkers while rejected and predatory stalkers committed more assaults.

Topics: Perpetration; stalking

O'Keefe, M., & Treister, L. (1998). Victims of dating violence among high school students: Are the predictors different for males and females? Violence Against Women, 4, 195-223.

This study examines whether predictors of dating violence differ for males and females. Predictors are grouped according to three categories: sociodemographic, contextual, and situational. The sociodemographic category includes ethnicity and family SES. The contextual domain is comprised of distal predictors including: experiencing physical aggression, accepting violence, inter-parental aggression, community and school violence, interpersonal control, and self-esteem. Situational predictors are proximal and include: relationship satisfaction, relationship seriousness, length of dating relationships, number of dating relationships, relationship conflict, and inflicting dating violence. Separate analyses are conducted for males and females. Results indicate different patterns of predictors for males and females and that, while both sexes report similar motivations for engaging in dating violence, males report initiating dating violence more frequently (if equal responsibility was not declared). Results also indicate that the effects of the violence are more severe for females.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; male-female relations; perpetration; risk

Ouimette, P.C. (1997). Psychopathology and sexual aggression in nonincarcerated men. Violence & Victims, 12, 389-395.

The authors compare the psychopathological profiles of 47 rapists or would-be rapists to those of 56 sexually active but non-raping men. On the basis of the Sexual Experiences Survey (Koss & Gidycz, 1985) and structured clinical interviews, the sexually aggressive men reported a pattern of symptoms indicating impulse control problems. They had more conduct-disordered behavior in childhood, and abused alcohol and illicit drugs more than did the nonviolent men. These symptoms were clinically significant: a higher proportion of sexually aggressive men met criteria for child conduct disorder as well as alcohol and drug abuse diagnoses than did nonviolent men. Sexually aggressive men also reported more personality disorder symptoms than nonviolent men, suggesting that they had less empathy, and were more self-centered and manipulative than nonviolent men. These findings suggest that undetected sexually violent men have fairly severe and long-standing problems with impulsivity. These results add to the growing literature on common factors in criminal and nonincarcerated samples.

Topics: Perpetration

Santana, M., Raj, A., Decker, M., La Marche, A., & Silverman, J. (2006). Masculine gender roles associated with increased sexual risk and intimate partner violence perpetration among young adult men. Journal of Urban Health, 83, 575-585. [Posted October 2006.]

Key Points: Researchers found that men who believed in traditional male gender roles were more likely to have committed intimate partner violence within the past year than men with less traditional beliefs.

Abstract: A group of 283 men, aged 18-35, were recruited at a community health center in Boston. The men were mostly Hispanic (74.9%) and Black (21.9%), and 55% were not born in the continental US. In the previous year, 40% reported committing one or more types of intimate partner violence (IPV): sexual violence (28.3%); physical violence (27.6%); and violence causing injury and/or need for medical services (13.8%). Men who had traditional male gender role beliefs were more likely to have committed intimate partner violence (IPV) within the past year and to have unprotected vaginal sex with a primary partner than men with less traditional beliefs. However, traditional beliefs were not associated with having multiple female partners, forcing unprotected sex, or engaging in unprotected anal sex. Levels of violence were the same regardless of race/ethnicity, country of origin, or acculturation. Only a low level of education (not having a high school diploma or GED) was associated with having traditional beliefs and with committing higher rates of IPV.

The results do not imply a cause-and-effect relationship between IPV and traditional beliefs. However, interventions to reduce IPV and sexual risk among young men may be more successful if they promote less traditional gender role beliefs.

Topics: Male-female relations; myths/stereotypes; perpetration

Schewe, P. A., & O'Donohue, W. (1996). Rape prevention with high-risk males: Short-term outcome of two interventions. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 25, 455-471.

This article discusses the development and evaluation of two interventions designed to reduce the amount of date rape attempted by male college students: (1) the Rape Supportive Cognition's (RSC) intervention, which targets commonly held false beliefs that promote or condone coercive sexual behavior; and (2) the Victim/Empathy Outcome Expectancies (VE/OE) intervention, which targets poor victim empathy and problematic rape outcome expectancies. Seventy-four high-risk subjects, as determined by scores on the Attraction to Sexual Aggression scale (ASA), were randomly assigned to one of the treatment groups or to a no-treatment control group. Treatment effects were assessed using subjects' pre- and posttest scores on the ASA, the Rape Myth Acceptance, the Acceptance of Interpersonal Violence, and the Adversarial Sexual Beliefs scales as well as subjects' posttest scores on the Rape Conformity Assessment. Results indicated that both treatments were significantly more effective than no treatment, with the RSC group showing clinically significant changes on three of the five dependent measures while the VE/OE group evidenced significant changes on only one measure.

Topics: College; evaluation; perpetration; prevention

Silverman, J., Decker, M., Reed, E., Rothman, E., Hathaway, J., Raj, A., et al. (2006). Social norms & beliefs regarding sexual risk and pregnancy involvement among adolescent males treated for dating violence perpetration. Journal of Urban Health, 83, 723-735. [Posted October 2006.]

Key Points: Beliefs about normal sexual behavior of men and women should be addressed when developing programs to reduce relationship violence and sexual risk.

Abstract: The goal of this exploratory study was to generate hypotheses about the relationship between beliefs about sexual behavior and the practice of risky behaviors. Six focus groups were held with 34 young men aged 13-20 who were enrolled in dating violence programs because of actual abuse or concerns about their potential to abuse. Several major themes emerged from the groups. Participants believed that it was normal for men have multiple partners and that claims of sex gave men status. They described men as rationalizing rape to avoid thinking of themselves as rapists. They explained that men would not use condoms while high, or if putting a condom on gave a girl an opportunity to leave. They described hostile relations with women, who they believed usually lied about being raped. Participants believed men were not responsible for pregnancies because women used pregnancy to trick men into relationships.

Limitations of the study included the small sample, the inability to separate actual perpetrators from those merely at risk for dating violence, and the risk that focus group participants were trying to impress the researchers and each other.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; perpetration

Spitzberg, B. H. & Cupach, W. R. (2007). The state of the art of stalking: Taking stock of the emerging literature. Aggression & Violent Behavior, 12, 64-86. [Posted April 2007.]

Key Points: The article provides a thorough overview and explanation of issues related to stalking based on the current published literature.

Abstract: This meta-analysis summarizes the results of 175 studies of stalking. In addition to looking at variations in prevalence between studies, the authors considered the definitions of stalking and described the closely-related set of behaviors termed “obsessive relational intrusion.” The authors created systematic typologies of types of stalkers, stalkers’ motivations, and types of stalking behaviors. Victims’ coping responses and the effects of stalking are also categorized. The majority of stalking victims are women. Because the majority of victims (79%) were acquainted with the stalker, and because half of all stalking was related to romantic relationships, the authors recommended looking at most stalking not only as criminal behavior or psychopathology, but as a type of “relationship terrorism” similar to other types of domestic violence.

Topics: Effects; perpetration; prevalence; stalking

White, J. W., & Kowalski, R. M. (1998). Male violence toward women: An integrated perspective. In R. G. Geen & E. I. Donnerstein (Eds.), Human aggression: Theories, research, and implications for social policy (pp. 203-228). San Diego, CA: Academic Press, Inc.

This paper focuses on male intimate aggression/violence directed toward females. Single and multifactor theories that have been used to explain male violence against women are described. An integrative contextual developmental perspective is provided to organize information about violence against women. This model provides a meta-theoretical framework within which more specific theories and hypotheses can be considered. The evidence concerning the various forms of violence against women is summarized, including prevalence and characteristics of the perpetrator, victim, and circumstances surrounding each of the various forms of aggression. This approach is adopted to emphasize that an individual's behavior can be best understood by considering the impact of historical, sociocultural, and social factors across time on cognitive and motivational processes that result in aggression and violence.

Topics: Male-female relations; perpetration; prevalence; theory

Updated 08/01/07