Campbell, J., Garza, M., O'Campo, P., Kub, J., et. al. (2003). Intimate partner violence and abuse among active duty military women. Violence Against Women, 9, 1072-1092.

The purpose of this study was to examine intimate partner violence experienced by active duty military women. This study reviewed the responses of 616 women to determine the prevalence of social and physical abuse. The authors also identified demographic characteristics which were risk factors for intimate partner violence. According to this study, 44.3% of the women reported some form of adult lifetime abuse. Some risk factors identified with the prevalence of intimate partner violence include: (a) separated or divorced marital status, (b) being widowed, (c) having either one or more than two children, and (d) being enlisted personnel (as opposed to officers) in the military.

Topics: Marital rape; military; risk

Campbell, R. & Raja, S. (2005). The sexual assault and secondary victimization of female veterans: Help-seeking experiences with military and civilian social systems. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29, 97-106. [Posted April 2007.]

Key Points: Among women veterans and reservists, 39% had been sexually assaulted at least once in adulthood.

Abstract: The study sample consisted of 268 primarily low income, African-American (77%) female veterans and reservists seeking medical care at a VA clinic. Out of 104 sexual assaults described, 38% occurred while a woman was in military service, and 82% of those were committed by a military peer or supervisor.

Similar numbers of victims of military and non-military assault sought medical treatment after an attack. Although military medical providers engaged in fewer secondary victimization behaviors than non-military providers, victims were more likely to have negative feelings after treatment by military medical personnel. Military victims were more likely to have reported the assault to legal personnel (59%) than non-military victims (26%). Both groups experienced similar overall levels of legal secondary victimization. All victims who encountered any secondary victimization behaviors reported more post-traumatic stress symptoms.

In light of the high prevalence rates, the researchers recommended that the VA expand services such as the Women Veterans’ Comprehensive Health Centers to create environments where women can receive respectful and appropriate treatment.

Topics: Disclosure; military; secondary victimization

Coyle, B. S., Wolan, D. L., & Van Horn, A. S. (1996). The prevalence of physical and sexual abuse in women veterans seeking care at a veterans affairs medical center. Military Medicine, 161, 588-593.

This study examines the prevalence of physical and sexual abuse in a sample of female veterans seeking care at a Veteran's Affairs Medical Center. The article discusses a military policy allowing services only for female veterans who were sexually assaulted while on duty. The study examines percentages of sexual assault in women while on active duty and occurrences of civilian rape. The authors argue that there are long-term consequences for all types of sexual abuse/assault.

Topics: Effects; military; prevalence

David, W., Simpson, T. & Cotton, A. (2006). Taking charge: A pilot curriculum of self-defense and personal safety training for female veterans with PTSD because of military sexual trauma. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21, 555-565. [Posted October 2006.]

Key Points: Participation in a self-defense/personal safety intervention reduced symptoms of PTSD and depression among female veterans who had experienced sexual assault and sexual trauma in the military.

Abstract: A group of twelve female veterans (average age 48.3 years) in treatment for PTSD at a VA hospital participated in this 12-week, 36-hour pilot treatment program. Each three-hour group session included one hour of psychoeducation and role-play; one hour of physical self-defense training with a male and a female instructor, and one hour of debriefing. Three female psychologists were present throughout each session. Data was collected from ten women: twice before the intervention, immediately after completion, and at three and six months after. Significant changes lasting over time included: being able to better identify risky vs. safe situations; less avoidance of social situations to avoid triggering memories; less hyperarousal; less depression; and increased self-efficacy. A strong bond developed among participants which may have helped all twelve complete the program.

This study was limited by a small sample size of self-selected participants who were carefully screened for psychological and physical stability. Further studies should be done to determine if equally positive results are found in other groups.

Topics: Military; survivors; treatment

Kasinsky, R. G. (1998). Tailhook and the construction of sexual harassment in the media: "Rowdy navy boys" and the women who made a difference. Violence Against Women, 4, 81-99.

This article examines how the media reported the Tailhook incident from the occurrence of the incident itself through the conclusion of military and congressional debates about its meaning 5 years later. The authors state that, although the military's cover-up of the incident was interrupted by women in the Senate, the media reports paralleled the dominant gender ideology of "boys will be boys," thereby reinforcing the view that sexual harassment is tolerable.

Topics: Harassment; military; myths/stereotypes

Kelley, M. L., Schwerin, M. J., Farrar, K. L., & Lane, M. E. (2005). An evaluation of a sexual assault prevention and advocacy program for U.S. navy personnel. Military Medicine, 170, 320-326.

In response to the high rates of sexual victimization, the Navy has implemented the Sexual Assault Victim Intervention program (SAVI). SAVI provides training to increase sexual assault awareness and advocacy to guide survivors through medical, legal, and investigative systems. The study examined the effectiveness of the SAVI program. Nineteen SAVI programs participated in the study and 416 completed surveys were analyzed. The majority of participants were active duty Navy service members. Majority of participants reported that the quality of the prevention training and advocacy services were better or much better than expected (64% and 83%, respectively). Most participants (87%) indicated that the advocacy services helped them cope with sexual assault. More than 95% of the individuals from the prevention training and the advocacy services agreed or strongly agreed that the program enhanced the health and safety of sailors and their families. Directions for future research are presented.

Topics: Evaluation; military; prevention

Magley, V. J., Waldo, C. R., Drasgow, F., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (1999). The impact of sexual harassment on military personnel: Is it the same for men and women? Military Psychology, 11, 283-302.

This study compared outcomes of sexual harassment for men and women utilizing data from the US Department of Defense's (1995) gender issues survey. Service members (22,372 female and 5,924 male) responded to 23 of 26 Sexual Experiences Questionnaire--Department of Defense items which were used to measure sexual harassment. Results indicate that women were more likely to experience sexual harassment than men. Results also indicated that women almost always experienced sexual harassment from men while men were somewhat more likely to experience sexual harassment from other men. Overall, sexual harassment is more impactful for women. The results also indicated that in those cases where the experiences are similar, males and females have comparable psychological, health, and job-related outcomes.

Topics: Effects; harassment; military

Merrill, L. L., Newell, C. E., Milner, J. S., Koss, M. P., Hervig, L. K., Gold, S. R., et al. (1998). Prevalence of premilitary adult sexual victimization and aggression in a Navy recruit sample. Military Medicine, 163, 209-212.

This article addresses the need for identifying, treating, educating, and preventing sexual assault among military recruits based on a survey of 3,776 US Navy recruits. Results from the survey revealed that 45.5% of the women had experienced attempted rape (9.4%) or completed rape (36.1%) prior to joining the Navy. Of the male recruits, 14.8% admitted committing attempted (3.5%) or completed rape (11.3%) prior to joining the Navy. Since sexual assault victims are likely to require psychological and/or physical treatment by health care providers and male perpetrators are likely to re-offend, it is crucial that the military address these issues among recruits so that intervention and prevention are possible.

Topics: Military; perpetration; prevalence; prevention; risk

Merrill, L. L., Newell, C. E., Thomsen, C. J., Gold, S. R., Milner, J. S., Koss, M. P., et al. (1999). Childhood abuse and sexual revictimization in a female Navy recruit sample. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 12, 211-225.

The authors surveyed 1,887 female Navy recruits in order to examine the effects of childhood abuse on adult rape. A total of 35% of recruits had been raped and 57% had experienced childhood physical abuse (CPA) and/or childhood sexual abuse (CSA). Controlling for CPA, rape was significantly (4.8 times) more likely among women who had experienced CSA than among women who had not. In contrast, CPA (controlling for CSA) was unrelated to likelihood of adult rape. The authors included alcohol problems and number of sex partners as mediators in their models. Although both variables predicted rape, their effects were independent of the effects of CSA. Finally, despite ethnic group differences in the prevalence of victimization, the predictors of rape did not differ significantly across ethnic groups.

Topics: Military; prevalence; risk; survivors

Rosen, L. N., & Martin, L. (1998). Predictors of tolerance of sexual harassment among male U.S. Army soldiers. Violence Against Women, 4, 491-504.

The tolerance of sexual harassment in the Army was examined in relation to three variabsSles thought to be indicative of negative attitudes toward women. The first was a personality variable; that is, negative masculinity associated with aggressive characteristics. The second measured hostility toward women and the third measured the acceptance of women as men's equals in the Army. All three variables predicted tolerance of sexual harassment in the Army. Hostility toward women was the strongest predictor, followed by negative masculinity and acceptance of women.

Topics: Harassment; military; risk

Sadler, A. G., Booth, B. M., Cook, B. L. & Doebbeling, B. N. (2003). Factors associated with women’s risk of rape in the military environment. American Journal of Industrial Medicine, 43, 262-273.

As a male-dominated occupation, the military places female personnel at heightened risk for workplace sexual violence. The purpose of this study was twofold: (a) to distinguish environmental factors related to rape while employed in military service and (b) to depict characteristics of victims and offenders in the workplace. Drawing upon female veterans of Vietnam and the Persian Gulf eras, this study included 558 women (mean age of 40 years) who participated in a national cross-sectional survey involving structured telephone interviews. Developed and piloted using female veterans, the interview measured: (a) characteristics and prevalence of violence; (b) work, living, and leisure environments; (c) officer conduct toward women; and (d) work performance and health-care access. Results found that 79% of female veterans reported sexual harassment, 54% reported unwanted sexual contact, and 30% reported one or more attempted/completed rapes. Of those raped during military service, 37% were raped at least twice and 14% were gang-raped. Characteristics of victims included prior victimization before entering the military, entrance into the military at =19 years of age, discharge at a younger age than nonvictims, and membership in enlisted rank. Victims were also less likely to complete college than were women who had not been raped during their military service. Offenders were characterized as male, non-commissioned officers, and peer of similar rank with previous sexual harassment exhibited by non-commissioned officers and drugs or alcohol being additional predictors of perpetration. Environmental factors associated with rape included sexual harassment permitted by ranking officers, observing sexual activity in sleeping quarters, ranking officers employing quid pro quo behavior, receiving unwanted sexual advances in sleeping quarters, experiencing sexually demeaning comments and behaviors at a duty station, and experiencing unwanted sexual advances on duty. The authors conclude that sexualized living and work environments significantly raise women’s risk of rape while appropriate leadership can both determine and improve the military environment for women.

Topics: Harassment; military; risk

Schultz, J., Bell, K., Naugle, A., Polusny, M. (2006). Child sexual abuse and adulthood sexual assault among military veteran and civilian women. Military Medicine, 171, 723-728. [Posted October 2006.]

Key Points: Female veterans were more likely to report having been sexually assaulted as an adult than civilian women. Among those who were sexually abused as children (under age 14), veteran women were more likely to have been abused by a parental figure. 

Abstract: Both veteran women (N=142) and non-veteran women (N=81) from community settings completed questionnaires about their experiences of child sexual abuse, adult sexual victimization, and adult sexual assault. More than twice as many veteran women (48.9%) reported adult sexual assault than community women (21.5%). Veteran women and community women reported similar levels of child sexual abuse (48.6% and 43.2% respectively), but veteran women were much more likely to have been sexually abused by a parental figure (91.9% vs. 10%). The authors recommend screening women in the military to assist those who may have been sexually traumatized, and development of a sexual assault prevention program for all women entering the military.

Because women with a history of sexual violence may have been more likely to complete the questionnaire, rates of reported sexual violence may be higher than in a general population.

Topics: Military; survivors

Updated 08/01/07