Alexy, E. M., Burgess, A. W., & Baker, T. (2005). Internet offenders: Traders, travelers, and combination trader-travelers. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20, 804-812.

Since 1998, the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention has identified Internet crimes against children (ICAC) as a new means by which children are being sexually victimized. This study analyzed terms used by law enforcement, such as “traders” and “travelers” (p. 804), by sampling 225 news cases. Results showed that 95.1% of child exploitation cases involved male offenders, that most Internet offenders were between 30 to 39 years of age, and that crime classifications fell into three groups – traders, travelers, and combination trader-travelers. For example, 59.1% of the sample were traders (i.e., charged with production, possession, or distribution) whereas travelers (21.8% of the sample) lure children to a meeting place for purposes of sexual exploitation. Furthermore, combination trader-travelers, constituting about 19% of the sample, trade child pornography over the Internet and travel to meet children. The authors outline how the Internet has expanded the networking capacities of offenders not only to communicate and trade images of child pornography but also to exploit children directly. Results from this study also demonstrate that “there is no definitive archetypal pattern or profile for Internet offenders” (p. 810) and that future research is required to establish more informative classifications of Internet offenders.

Topics: Media/internet; perpetration

Ardovini-Brooker, J., & Caringella-MacDonald, S. (2002). Media attributions of blame and sympathy in ten rape cases. The Justice Professional, 15, 3-18.

This study was designed to determine which variables are associated with victim blame and offender blame in media stories about rape cases. Ten high profile rape cases covered in nationally popular magazines between 1980 to 1996 were studied. A content analysis of 123 media articles on the cases was conducted whereby the cases were categorized into groups based upon the following: the race and class of victims and offenders, single vs. multiple offenders, and stranger vs. acquaintance victim-offender relationships. To identify instances of victim and offender blame and sympathy, common rape myths from the literature were operationalized as blame statements (i.e., statements that portray the individual in a negative light or reproach the individual for his/her behavior), while sympathetic statements were operationalized as genial or defensive remarks. Following case coding, the cases were rank ordered by victim/offender blaming and victim/offender sympathy. The overall results indicated that, of all blaming statements by the media, 55% were directed toward the victim and 45% were directed toward the offender. Victims were more likely to be blamed for the rape if they were acquainted with their assailant and/or had been drinking. Furthermore, the top three offender blaming cases involved stranger perpetrators. The interaction of race and class was also evident: the top three victim blaming cases involved White men and/or high status men, while the bottom three victim blaming cases involved White women and/or high status women. Interestingly, victim blaming did not differ by the number of offenders involved in the attack (single vs. gang). In summary, offenders were blamed in cases that were more aligned with stereotypical notions of rape. The authors conclude that media accountability must be demanded because of the great influence upon public attitudes and behaviors relating to sexual violence.

Topics: Media/internet; myths/stereotypes; racial/ethnic differences

Berson, M. (2006). Finding ways to change behaviour. In 2006 NetSafe Symposium - Cybersafety & Security Online (pp. 44-46). NetSafe. [Posted September 2006.]

Key Points: Current efforts in internet safety education for children are effective at increasing knowledge, but ineffective in changing behavior.

Abstract: This document is part of the published proceedings of an internet safety and security conference held in Wellington, New Zealand, in July of 2006. The document is a transcript of a plenary given by Dr. Michael Berson of the University of South Florida, where he comments on current efforts to provide internet safety education to children and future directions.

Evaluated efforts of well-funded internet safety education programs have been able to demonstrate an increase in knowledge, but none have demonstrated a significant change in behavior. Current efforts and legislation promoting traditional criminal justice models of behavior prevention are unlikely to succeed. There is too much emphasis on restricting children's access to pornography. Future efforts must get children to be critical consumers of the vast volumes of information they have access to. The critical question educators should be trying to answer is, "...how do children discern fact from fantasy?"

This document is available online. Link to the individual sections of the published proceedings from this conference.

Topics: Media/internet; prevention

Brown, J., L'Engle, K., Pardun, C., Guang, G., Kenneavy, K., & Jackson, C. (2006). Sexy media matter: Exposure to sexual content in music, movies, television, and magazines predicts black and white adolescents' sexual behavior. Pediatrics, 117, 1018-1027. [Posted September 2006.]

Key Points: Media is more likely to influence the sexual behavior of white adolescents than black adolescents.

Abstract: This article reports the findings of a longitudinal study of 1,017 adolescents regarding their media use. The study found that white adolescents exposed to sexual content in music, movies, television, and magazines increased their sexual activity and were at higher risk of engaging in early sexual intercourse. Black adolescents were less influenced by the media. Instead, black adolescents were more influenced by their perceptions of their parent's expectations and the sexual behavior of their peers.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; media/internet

Bufkin, J., & Eschholz, S. (2000). Images of sex and rape: A content analysis of popular film. Violence Against Women, 6, 1317-1344.

The authors conducted a content analysis of the 50 top-grossing films in 1996 to measure the prevalence and scope of sex and rape depictions. The authors conclude that movies tend to present a patriarchal vision of sex and rape. In the movies, rapes are committed by disturbed, sadistic, lower-class persons who prey on children and the weak. The authors contend that this unidimensional and limited picture of rape may actually help to perpetuate the real problem of rape and sexual abuse in our society in that such films ignore the reality of most real-life rapes.

Topics: Media/internet; myths/stereotypes

Chisholm, J. F. (2006). Cyberspace violence against girls and adolescent females. Annals of New York Academy of Science, 1087, 74-89. [Posted April 2007.]

Key Points: Youth are often not psychologically equipped to protect themselves from bullying and exploitation online. Most adults are not aware of the risks to which young people are exposed through electronic communication.

Abstract: This article summarized types of “cyberviolence” (online bullying and other forms of exploitation). The ability to send messages anonymously and instantly through text messaging or email has created a new set of potential benefits and dangers for young people. Online culture evolves rapidly and can vary dramatically by age group. Adults who are not as technologically savvy as youth may not be aware of bullying and other damaging online behavior and thus not able to protect young people from online dangers.

Several projects working to prevent or mitigate victimization are presented. The author recommended that research be done to examine the effects of online socializing on adolescent development, and how the Internet continues to change patterns of communication. She also recommended training for mental health practitioners who work with youth to recognize signs of online victimization.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; media/Internet; prevention

Cooper, A., Golden, G. H., & Kent-Ferraro, J. (2002). Online sexual behaviors in the workplace: How can human resource departments and employee assistance programs respond effectively? Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 9, 149-165.

The primary purpose of this article is to educate those in the workforce about the negative impact of sexual behaviors within the workplace. Along with outlining legal and social ramifications of virtual sexuality, the authors also suggest preventative measures that employers can use to inform employees about sexuality in the workplace. The article describes prior research pertaining to the prevalence of online sexual activity at work, as well as varying organizational policies toward sexual compulsive behavior and the legal issues involved. The authors provide recommendations to protect organizations and employees from unnecessary litigation exposure as well as factors that should be considered when an employee is found to be engaging in online sexual activity within the workplace. Furthermore, they outline potential goals that could be incorporated into prevention and awareness programs that, when implemented within an organization, may enhance employee safety, workplace satisfaction, and overall efficiency.

Topics: Harassment; legal responses; media/internet

Dombrowski, S. C., LeMasney, J. W., Ahia, C. E., & Dickson, S. A. (2004). Protecting children from online sexual predators: Technological, psychoeducational, and legal considerations. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 35, 65-73.

The authors highlight the need for professional psychologists, educators, parents, and other individuals who care for children and youth to increase their understanding of the risks of online sexual solicitation. The aim of the article is to increase awareness and promote the protection of youth from sexual predators who use the Internet. The first section is an overview of predator and victim characteristics and grooming behaviors. The second is a discussion of how predators use the Internet for sexual solicitation. The third section is a description of technological and psychoeducational methods for preventing online solicitation. The conclusion presents guidelines and legal considerations for practicing psychologists.

Topics: Media/internet; perpetration; prevention

Linz, D., Wilson, B. J., & Donnerstein, E. (1992). Sexual violence in the mass media: Legal solutions, warnings, and mitigation through education. Journal of Social Issues, 48, 145-171.

Adolescent exposure to violence in the mass media may result in detrimental societal effects. Research suggests that exposure to violent materials, whether or not they are sexually explicit, results in less sensitivity toward victims of sexual violence. Three solutions to the problem are addressed. The solution of strengthening the obscenity laws was found to be ineffective because the laws focus on sexual explicitness and not violence. The film rating system was also found to be ineffective because it is found to be inconsistent with social science research on the effects of sexual violence. Finally, the solution that holds the most promise is educational interventions directed at changing beliefs about rape and sexual violence. A program is presented that is based on prior research with college students.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; community attitudes/responses; media/internet

McCaughey, M., & King, N. (1995). Rape education videos: Presenting mean women instead of dangerous men. Teaching Sociology, 23, 374-388.

This paper addresses two methods of rape prevention education that employ videos. The first focuses on "dangerous men" by presenting students with visual examples of male brutality against women in which women are depicted as vulnerable, weak, and overpowered. While disturbing and perhaps capable of inciting awareness of violence against women, they may also contribute toward promoting certain stereotypes concerning male physical strength and female weakness and submission. The second type of video – and the one analyzed in this study – draws upon scenes from movies wherein women are depicted as powerful, armed, and aggressive. Based on students' reactions to this type of video, depictions of aggressive women destabilize men's sense of physical power and replace that confidence with the realization that women have the potential for an alternative response to violence against them.

Topics: Media/internet; myths/stereotypes; prevention

Mitchell, K. J., Finkelhor, D., & Wolak, J. (2005). The Internet and family and acquaintance sexual abuse. Child Maltreatment, 10, 49-60.

The purpose of the study was to examine how offenders use the Internet to commit sexual abuse. A subset of the data from the National Juvenile Online Victimization Study was analyzed. The dataset consisted of 126 arrests involving family or acquaintance sexual offenders. Family and acquaintance offenders constituted 18% of all arrests for Internet crimes during a 1-year period starting in 2000. Family offenders were more likely to commit crimes against female victims under the age of 12, whereas acquaintance offenders were more likely to commit crimes against male teenagers. The authors identified five primary ways that the Internet was used in sex crimes: 1) seduction and grooming, 2) storing and disseminating child pornography to other offenders, 3) arranging meeting times and communicating with victims, 4) rewarding and enticing minors into the offender's home, and 5) advertising or selling minors to other offenders. Implications for prevention messages and investigation approaches are discussed.

Topics: Media/internet; perpetration; prevention

Morrison, K. (2005). Motivating women and men to take protective action against rape: Examining direct and indirect persuasive fear appeals. Health Communications, 18, 237-256.

The aim of the study was to examine the effectiveness of direct and indirect persuasive fear appeals to encourage women to enroll in rape prevention self-defense courses. Messages targeting men persuaded them to talk to women they care about and recommend that they enroll in self-defense courses. The study was influenced by several theories including Witte's extended parallel process model (EPPM, 1992), Lerner's just world hypothesis (1965), and social exchange theories. The sample consisted of 115 male and 144 female undergraduate students. Male and female participants were exposed to different high-threat and low-threat messages. The results showed that direct fear appeals had a positive impact on women talking about and enrolling in self-defense courses. Men's behaviors and intentions were influenced by indirect fear appeals. Implications for men's role in rape prevention are discussed.

Topics: Media/internet; prevention

National Victim Center. (1992, April 23). Rape in America: A report to the nation. Arlington, VA.

This report provides empirical data about forcible rape in America. The questions addressed include: What is forcible rape? How much rape is there in the United States? What are rape victims' key concerns? How many rapes are actually reported to police? Does media disclosure of rape victims' names affect such reporting? What has been the impact of recent high profile rape cases on reporting of rapes? Note: A copy of this report can be obtained on the National Victim Center's homepage http://www.nvc.org/

Topics: Media/internet; prevalence; statistics

Paik, H., & Comstock, G. (1994). The effects of television violence on antisocial behavior: A meta-analysis. Communication Research, 21, 516-546.

A quantitative collection of research findings and their subsequent interpretation of the influence of television violence and its link with aggressive, antisocial, or delinquent behavior is the focus of this article. Included in this meta-analysis are both experimental studies and surveys. Internal validity of each study was assessed. This analysis aims to take advantage of recently developed techniques and the enlarged database and to give more emphasis to "real world violence" to show a causal relationship between violent television viewing and aggressive behavior. The findings show that all types of aggressive behavior have highly significant effect sizes associated with exposure to television.

Topics: Media/internet; risk

Wolak, J., Mitchell, K., & Finkelhor, D. (2007). Unwanted and wanted exposure to online pornography in a national sample of young Internet users. Pediatrics, 119, 247-257. [Posted January 2007.]

Key Points: A survey of Internet users aged 10-17 found that 42% had seen pornography online during the previous year, and 66% of those exposures were unwanted.

Abstract: The 2005 Youth Internet Safety Survey conducted phone interviews with 1,422 youth to measure exposure to online pornography during the previous year and the characteristics of those most at risk of being exposed.

Online pornography was defined as pictures on a website or as a downloaded image of naked people or people having sex. Youth were divided into three groups: those with wanted exposure (they wanted to see the image); unwanted exposure (they did not want to see the image); and those with both types of exposures. Youth were also asked about how they used the Internet. 

The only type of Internet use related to unwanted exposure was the use of file-sharing programs to download images. More than half of all boys 14-15 years old and two-thirds of 16-17 year olds had some exposure to online pornography. As boys aged, they were more likely to want exposure than not. Among girls, wanted exposure increased slightly with age but unwanted exposure strongly increased. Depressed youth were slightly more likely to be exposed to wanted and unwanted pornography.

Filtering, blocking, or monitoring software and law enforcement presentations reduced unwanted exposure to online pornography.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; media/Internet

Young, A., Young, A. & Fullwood, H. (2007). Adolescent online victimization. The Prevention Researcher, 14, 8-9. [Posted April 2007]

Key Points: As Internet use becomes more common, the number of youth exposed to online sexual solicitation, sexual material, and harassment (sexual or bullying) has increased.

Abstract: In a review of three recent studies, the authors estimated national prevalence of online victimization of youth at 13% for sexual solicitation; 34% for exposure to unwanted sexual material; and 9% for any type of harassment. The majority of incidents was not distressing and was not reported to adults.

Risk factors for online victimization included older age (youth 14-17 were at higher risk than younger children) and gender (girls were more likely to experience sexual solicitation or harassment than boys). In one study, 60% of youth gave out personal information in an online questionnaire or form. About 45% gave that information to someone they had met online.

Possible prevention strategies include frank discussion by adults about Internet victimization so that youth are better equipped to avoid it and deal with it if it happens. The authors recommended making youth aware of the possible consequences of sharing personal information online. Adults can also prepare youth to take action if they are victimized: removing themselves from the situation; changing screen name; and reporting the incident to prevent others from being victimized.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; harassment; media/Internet; prevalence; prevention; risk

Updated 08/01/07