Abbey, A. (1991). Acquaintance rape and alcohol consumption on college campuses: How are they linked? Journal of American College Health, 39, 165-169.

This article explores the link between acquaintance rape and alcohol consumption among college students. Men's expectancies about alcohol, misperceptions of sexual intent, and justifications of sexual violence are reviewed. Women's abilities to send and receive cues and resist sexual assault are discussed. The article also examines stereotypes about women who drink and how women feel an increased sense of responsibility for being raped based on alcohol consumption. Implications for prevention programming and future research are presented.

Topics: Alcohol; college; male-female relations; myths/stereotypes

Abbey, A., McAuslan, P., Zawacki, T., Clinton, A. M., & Buck, P. (2001). Attitudinal, experiential, and situational predictors of sexual assault perpetration. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 16, 784-807.

This study examines individual differences and situational factors involved in sexual assault by comparing descriptions of worst dates to descriptions of sexual assaults. Males (N = 343) were recruited at a large, urban university and asked to complete a questionnaire. Several self-report measures were included to assess: social desirability, gender role attitudes, alcohol-related attitudes, consensual sexual experiences history, previous experiences with misperception, peer support for nonconsensual sex, perpetration of sexual assault, characteristics of the sexual assault or worst date with a woman (i.e., the latter, if no sexual assault was reported), and characteristics of the sexual assault (including attributions of responsibility and outcomes). Results indicated that 33% of the sample had committed some type of sexual assault, of which 8% met the legal requirements to constitute an act of attempted or completed rape. Discriminant function analysis revealed that several variables differentiated perpetrators from nonperpetrators. These were: attitudes about gender roles and alcohol (i.e., hostile gender role beliefs, alcohol and sexual expectancies, approval for use of verbal pressure), past consensual sexual experience (i.e., number of previous partners), and characteristics of the situation (i.e., degree of familiarity, degree of isolation, role of alcohol during the interaction, duration of misperception, and prior consensual activity between the man and the woman involved). Additional analyses demonstrated that forced contacts, sexual coercions, and rapes could be differentiated along the following predictors: tactics used by perpetrators (i.e., verbal pressure, physical force, or alcohol/drugs), self-attributions related to the assault (i.e., regarding their behavior, alcohol consumption, and role of peer pressure), and outcomes (i.e., perception of seriousness and effect on the relationship between the man and the woman). The results of this study underscore the need to examine individual as well as situational variables that may differentiate between types of perpetrators and types of sexual assaults. In turn, such knowledge would enhance prevention activities.

Topics: Alcohol; college; male-female relations; perpetration

Abbey, A., Zawacki, T., & Buck, P. (2001). Alcohol and sexual assault. Alcohol Research & Health, 25, 43-51.

This article provides an overview of some of the key issues involved in the multifaceted relationship between alcohol and sexual assault. The authors begin by citing prevalence estimates of sexual assault and alcohol-involved sexual assault. This is followed by a comparison of characteristics that are common to nonalcohol-involved and/or alcohol-involved sexual assaults. Issues involved in studying the relationship between alcohol and sexual assault are also addressed. For example, the two most common approaches to examining the role of alcohol in sexual assault involve either surveys of victims and perpetrators or studies within a laboratory setting. Additional issues examined in this article include the distal and proximal factors in the pathways between alcohol consumption and sexual assault as well as the roles that personality, attitudes, and experiences of perpetrators and victims may play. The significance of situational factors are also reviewed. The authors discuss male-female interactions within different settings, the impact alcohol consumption may have in various settings, and the importance of male-female communication, cues, and the (mis)perceptions thereof. As such, previous research on alcohol and aggressive and sexual behavior are also reviewed. Lastly, important questions for future research on the dynamics of alcohol and sexual assault are presented.

Topics: Alcohol; male-female relations; prevalence; risk

Anderson, I., & Swainson, V. (2001). Perceived motivation for rape: Gender differences in beliefs about female and male rape. Current Research in Social Psychology, 6, 107-123.

The present study directs attention to observers’ beliefs and perceptions about male and female rape. To date, there are two explanations for rape motivation; that rape is a sexually motivated act or that rape is an act motivated by power. Data from 120 participants suggests that rape is still regarded as being a crime motivated by sex rather than power. In addition, it is suggested that most men support the view of rape as a sexually motivated act despite the belief that the feminist explanation for rape (i.e., motivated by power) was becoming more acceptable to the general population.

Topics: Male-female relations; myths/stereotypes; perpetration

Banyard, V. L., Plante, E. G., Cohn, E. S., Moorhead, C., Ward, S., & Walsh, W. (2005). Revisiting unwanted sexual experiences on campus: A 12-year follow-up. Violence Against Women, 11, 426-446.

The authors conducted an exploratory study in 1988 of unwanted sexual experiences on campus. Consequently, this article is a follow-up to that study. Although 524 women completed the 1988 survey, information concerning male victimization was insufficient from that study to be compared against the responses from 231 men and 417 women who completed the 2000 questionnaire. As such, only surveys from female respondents were used in the analysis. The survey included questions addressing unwanted sexual experiences, characteristics of the experiences, and disclosure. Results yielded a significant difference between 1988 and 2000 concerning prevalence of victimization (i.e., a drop in victimization rates of 37% in 1988 to 20.9% in 2000) and a significant decrease in unwanted sexual contact. Reported rates of unwanted sexual intercourse, on the other hand, remained constant across study years. Implications for prevention programs directed at campus communities are discussed.

Topics: College; male-female relations; prevalence

Berkowitz, A. (1992). College men as perpetrators of acquaintance rape and sexual assault: A review of recent research. Journal of American College Health, 40, 175-181.

This article proposes an integrated theory of sexual assault and provides a review of literature on the perpetration of acquaintance rape and sexual assault by college men. Topics covered include: (a) how rape is defined, (b) the incidence of acquaintance rape and sexual assault, (c) characteristics of perpetrators, (d) situational correlates of sexual assault, and (e) men's misperception of women's sexual intent. The need to develop effective rape-prevention programs for men is discussed.

Topics: College; male-female relations; perpetration

Berkowitz, A. D. (2002). Fostering men's responsibility for preventing sexual assault. In P. A. Schewe (Ed.), Preventing violence in relationships: Interventions across the lifespan (pp. 163-196). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

The author writes that for effective sexual assault prevention men must look at their own potential for violence as well as taking a stand against the violence of other men. He further asserts that men must take responsibility for preventing sexual assault because most sexual violence is perpetrated by men against women, children, and other men. Although only a minority of men are sexually violent, all men are part of the culture/environment that allows other men to perpetrate violence. The chapter offers an overview of issues involved in working with men to encourage taking the responsibility for sexual assault prevention. The chapter also suggests a philosophy for rape prevention programming, provides a model for prevention education programs, reviews promising programs and strategies, and includes recommendations for future program development. The chapter's main focus is on the prevention of sexual assault perpetrated by men or boys in college and high school settings.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; college; curriculum; prevention; male-female relations

Berkowitz, A. D. (2003). Applications of social norms theory to other health and social justice issues. In H. W. Perkins (Ed.), The social norms approach to preventing school and college age substance abuse: A handbook for educators, counselors, and clinicians (chap. 16). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

This chapter reviews theoretical assumptions of a social norms approach, assesses the relevance of the theory to health and social justice issues, and provides examples of social norms interventions for sexual assault prevention for men, second-hand effects of binge drinking, and anti-bias programming, as well as eating problems among women. The author operationalizes social norms theory as situations in which individuals incorrectly perceive the attitudes and/or behaviors of peers and other community members to be different from their own. The author posits that social norms theory can be used for interventions that correct these misperceptions by revealing the actual, healthier norms. Using social norms approach will have a beneficial effect on most individuals, who will either reduce their participation in potentially problematic behavior or be encouraged to engage in protective, healthy behaviors that are congruent with actual norms instead of misperceived norms.

Topics: Alcohol; male-female relations; prevention

Caetano, R., Field, C. A., Ramisetty-Mikler, S., & McGrath, C. (2005). The 5-year course of intimate partner violence among White, Black, and Hispanic couples in the United States. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20, 1039-1057.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is considered to be a serious public health issue. This study examined differences in IPV incidence, prevalence, and recurrence across three ethnic groups spanning a five year interval. Face-to-face interviews using standardized questionnaires included the following measures: the Conflict Tactics Scale to assess IPV; quantity and frequency of alcohol consumption as well as alcohol-related problems; psychosocial items concerning childhood physical abuse and childhood exposure to partner violence; approval of marital aggression; and sociodemographic items (e.g., ethnicity, income, and employment status). Results showed that patterns of prevalence, incidence, recurrence, and remission of IPV vary across ethnic groups and other demographic variables in such a way as to support sociostructural and social learning approaches to appreciating patterns of partner violence.

Topics: Male-female relations; prevalence; racial/ethnic differences

Clark III, R. D., & Hatfield, E. (1989). Gender differences in receptivity to sexual offers. Journal of Psychology and Human Sexuality, 2, 39-55.

Cultural stereotypes suggest that men are eager for sexual intercourse and women set limits. This article reviews various theories of the sexual interests of men and women as well as data that supports these theories. Two experimental tests of this hypothesis are reported here. In these experiments men and women were asked very direct questions about engaging in sexual activity with the person of the opposite sex who asked the question. The results show that men and women responded as traditionalists would expect them to. There are significant gender differences in the attitudes toward sex. Further study of the impact of AIDS on sexual roles is suggested.

Topics: Male-female relations; myths/stereotypes

Close, S. (2005). Dating violence prevention in middle school and high school youth. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 18, 2-9.

This paper addresses the current need to examine and prevent dating violence among middle school and high school adolescents. The author outlines the problem of perpetration and victimization as resulting from issues such as poor conflict resolution and social immaturity. Furthermore, the incidence of dating violence, the etiology of abusive behavior, risk factors, gender differences, and prevention/intervention programs are discussed thereby highlighting the significance of dating violence among adolescents as a growing public health concern.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; male-female relations; prevention

Collins, N. L., & Read, S. J. (1994). Cognitive representations of attachment: The structure and function of working models. In K. Bartholemew & D. Perlman (Eds.), Attachment processes in adulthood (pp. 53-90). London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers, Ltd.

The purpose of this article is to focus on how working models, the internal mental representations that individuals develop of the world and of significant people including themselves, affect cognitive representations of attachment. Working models are developed out of relationships from infancy to adulthood and can work on intrapersonal levels and affect interpersonal relationships. Attachment theory, based on working models, proposes that close relationships or attachments in adulthood cannot be understood without considering social and emotional experiences that preceded those attachments. Many of the ideas presented here are inconclusive although they are meant to stimulate thought about attachment models in a more precise and systematic way and to encourage further research.

Topics: Male-female relations

Connop, V., & Petrak, J. (2004). The impact of sexual assault on heterosexual couples. Sexual & Relationship Therapy, 19, 29-38.

The impact of sexual assault upon the male partners of female sexual assault victims is an under-researched area. The purpose of this study was to examine how male partners react to their partner’s sexual assault and what happens to the couples’ interactions. Participants were recruited through a sexual assault clinic and through press advertisements. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 6 males whose previous or current partners had been sexually assaulted and with 3 females who had been sexually assaulted and had disclosed their assault to their partners. Interviews revealed that 8 of the 9 participants had a partner who had experienced acquaintance rape – or, in the case of the female participants, had been the victim of acquaintance rape. In analyzing the interviews, four themes were identified: (a) the male partner’s role in providing support, (b) communication, (c) anger and blame, and (d) the impact of the assault on the sexual relationship. Many of the male participants indicated that they felt they should put their partner’s needs first and felt exhausted by their role in supporting their partner. Men also revealed a common assumption relating to socio-cultural scripts concerning heterosexual relationships; namely, the idea that they ought to protect their women. Relationship disturbances and communication problems were also reported to have increased in the aftermath of the assault. While at times the men enunciated rape myths, they could not be categorized either as viewing the rape as a sexual act or as a violent act (as the prior research study had indicated). A final issue noted by participants was how the sexual assault increased their difficulty in performing and enjoying sexual activity. Suggested implications of the findings for service provision include the benefit of couple-based counseling and counseling to support male partners’ support needs and psychosexual issues.

Topics: Disclosure; effects; male-female relations; myths/stereotypes; survivors

Dekker, I., & Barling, J. (1998). Personal and organizational predictors of workplace sexual harassment of women by men. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 3, 7-18.

Workplace and personal variables were studied to see their relationship to sexual harassment in a study of 278 male university faculty and staff. Results indicate that, in general, organizational variables and beliefs about sexual harassment were predictive of gender-based sexual harassment. Organizational efforts to reduce or prevent sexual harassment are discussed.

Topics: Harassment; male-female relations

Follingstad, D. R., Bradley, R. G., Laughlin, J. E., & Burke, L. (1999). Risk factors and correlates of dating violence: The relevance of examining frequency and severity levels in a college sample. Violence & Victims, 14, 365-380.

The author examines risk factors for dating violence using self-reported methods. In all, 327 female and 290 male 1st-year college students were questioned about their exposure to violence. Students completed 12 measures that asked questions about coping skills, dating violence, and the use and perceived effectiveness of violence and control in interpersonal relationships. Results indicate that students that self-reported dating violence attributed it primarily to efforts to control the actions of their dating partner. Stress and communication issues played a large part, as did jealousy and difficulty dealing with anger. Men who reported committing dating violence tended to have more alcohol problems. The researchers indicate that there were no major differences in negative evaluation apprehension, self-esteem, or problem-solving skills between nonviolent and violent groups.

Topics: College; male-female relations; perpetration; risk

Foubert, J. D., & Marriott, K. A. (1996). Overcoming men's defensiveness toward sexual assault programs: Learning to help survivors. Journal of College Student Development, 37, 470-472.

The authors state that men's defensiveness toward talking about rape functions to protect them from feeling guilty about the violent behavior of other men. The authors then describe a program designed to help men to overcome defensive reactions by identifying supportive roles for them that may help them to decrease both the prevalence and damaging effects of rape. The "How to Help a Sexual Assault Survivor" program consists of peer educators who encourage men to help survivors by listening to them, believing what they say happened, and accepting the survivor's decisions. Additionally, men are urged to resist the temptation to ask the survivor for details about the rape and to avoid suggestions of further violence. The initial results of the program appear to be positive. In a pilot survey of 17 male college students, 65% reported that they were less likely to be sexually coercive after having seen the program.

Topics: Male-female relations; prevention

Hanley, M. J., & O'Neill, P. (1997). Violence and commitment: A study of dating couples. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 12, 685-703.

The authors administered the Conflict Tactics Scale and measures of emotional commitment to dating couples who were college students. Members of a couple were independently tested, so that they could not influence each others' response choices. Participants reported both committing and receiving acts of violence and verbal aggression. They also assessed both their own level of commitment and their perception of the commitment level of their partners. Overall, it became possible to examine three possible similarities: between the partners, between self-rating and perception of partner, and between rating of the partner and the partner's self-report. At least one member reported violence in one-third of couples, but prevalence dropped below 20% when taking into account both members' responses. There was little agreement about who did what to whom. Violent couples reported greater commitment to the relationship and were also more likely to disagree with each other's level of emotional commitment.

Topics: College; male-female relations; prevalence

Hardin, M. (2002). Altering masculinities: The Spanish conquest and the evolution of the Latin American "machismo." International Journal of Sexuality & Gender Studies, 7, 1-22.

This article examines the construction of Latin American machismo. The author argues that machismo, a stereotype that emphasizes hypermasculinity, is a legacy of the Spanish Conquest, the Spanish conquistadors’ response to the indigenous two-spirit, and the conquistadors’ raping of indigenous women. Unlike in English colonialism, the Spanish Conquest was characterized by the need for slave labor and female mates. For business and progeny, therefore, sexuality was brought into the subjugation process and into the idea of machismo. Next, Spanish Catholicism also urged the repression of the conspicuously fluid sexualities and gender identities of indigenous peoples (e.g., the two-spirit or berdache social role). Notably, however, indigenous societies also evidenced sources of hypermasculinity. This is seen in the delineation between the active penetrator and passive receiver in assessing violations of male virility in homosexual activity. Next, the Spanish conquistadors contributed to the misogyny associated with machismo through the raping of indigenous women, their treatment as property, and the “traitorous” acts of la Malinche (Cortes’ translator and sex slave). Conquistadors’ actions served as a model of masculinity for indigenous males, redefining the indigenous male’s conception of masculinity to fit that of the dominating culture. Finally, the roots of machismo can also be traced from the association of class with masculinity. Since Spanish females were rare in the Americas, the mates with the greatest status were of the fairest skin. Thus, machismo’s association with characteristics such as strength, bravery, and virility may be indicative of a successful mating strategy.

Topics: Male-female relations; myths/stereotypes; racial/ethnic differences

 Heise, L., Ellsberg, M., & Gottemoeller, M. (1999). Ending violence against women. Population Reports, Series L, Number 11, 1-43.

This report provides an admirably thorough review of the various dimensions concerning violence against women across the globe. The authors begin by addressing the concept of gender-based violence, how health care providers can help, and what societal responses should entail in curbing the problem. The report discusses in detail the prevalence and ramifications of intimate partner abuse, sexual coercion, impact of violence on women’s reproductive health, threats to health and development, the role of health providers in recognizing and treating the effects of violence, and finally, an agenda for change. The report includes numerous charts presenting, for example, cross-cultural data on issues related to rates of approval of wife-beating and prevalence of forced first intercourse in various countries. The report also includes examples of posters used to educate women and increase awareness of the issues in different countries as well as several useful charts with instructions and guidelines for health care providers. This is an invaluable resource for anyone interested in understanding violence against women on a global level.

Topics: Community attitudes/responses; disclosure; effects; injury; male-female relations; marital rape; medical response; myths/stereotypes; perpetration; prevalence; prevention; racial/ethnic differences; risk; statistics; underserved populations; vulnerability

Koss, M. P. (2000b). Evolutionary models of why men rape: Acknowledging the complexities. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 1, 182-190.

This article discusses the limitations of Thornhill and Palmer's (2000) book, “A Natural History of Rape: Biological Bases of Sexual Coercion.” The author asserts that Thornhill and Palmer contrast evolutionary and feminist theories in a manner meant to encourage media attention; that they attempt to present their work as a battle of evolution versus the social sciences; and that they present two alternative hypotheses of human rape – namely, that rape is either a special adaptive strategy or that it is a by-product of male sexual desire and preference for higher numbers of sexual partners – but then fail to address the latter hypothesis. This critique also points out that Thornhill and Palmer make little use of empirical findings from the field of sexual assault research and that the majority of the empirical data actually challenges their findings. The author specifically disputes a number of Thornhill and Palmer's assertions by pointing out that: 1) many rape victims are children, not women of reproductive age, 2) women of childbearing years have not been shown to experience the most distress postvictimization, 3) emotional distress does not vary with the rapist's level of violence, 4) all forms of unwanted penetration is traumatic for women of all ages, and 5) although rapists rarely kill, life threat is high. The author also states that Thornhill and Palmer's prevention recommendations are naïve and harmful and concludes that “A Natural History of Rape” has made it more difficult to advocate for the explanatory role of evolutionary factors in research on violence against women.

Topics: Male-female relations; perpetration; theory

Koss, M. P., & Cleveland, H. H. (1997). Stepping on toes: Social roots of date rape lead to intractability and politicization. In M. D. Schwartz (Ed.), Researching sexual violence against women: Methodological and personal perspectives (pp. 4-21). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

This article discusses approaches to understanding rape and sexual aggression. The authors contend that rape-supportive environments encourage sexually aggressive men to act on their impulses and discourage women from identifying and reporting experiences of victimization. Coercive beliefs and aggressive behaviors are examined as part of our cultural understanding of sexuality. The authors address why this area of research is politicized and what this politicization means.

Topics: Male-female relations; risk; perpetration; vulnerability

Lalumiere, M. L., Chalmers, L. J., Quinsey, V. L., & Seto, M.C. (1996). A test of the mate deprivation hypothesis of sexual coercion. Ethology and Sociobiology, 17, 299-318.

The mate deprivation hypothesis states that males who have more limited access to mates are more likely to resort to sexual coercion. This study uses a sample of 156 undergraduate college males from a Canadian University to test this hypothesis. Access to mates was indexed and sexual coercion was rated using Koss’ sexual experiences survey. The results did not support the hypothesis. Sexually coercive males had (nonsignificantly) higher perceived mating success and significantly more sexual experience. The limitations of this study are addressed and further study and analyses suggested.

Topics: Male-female relations; perpetration

Lanier, C. A., & Elliot, M. N. (1997). A new instrument for the evaluation of a date rape prevention program. Journal of College Student Development, 38, 673-676.

This article presents the results of a study of a new behavior scale designed specifically to evaluate the efficacy of date rape prevention programs. The sample included 436 college students who filled-out the College Date Rape Attitude and Behavior Survey (CDRABS). The survey contains 20 questions addressing attitudes and 7 questions addressing behaviors, all of which pertain to heterosexual date rape on campuses. Women had lower rape-supportive attitudes than men, suggesting convergent validity of this scale with other measures of rape-supportive attitudes. Significant correlations between certain attitude and behavior items indicate that the attitude scale may be predictive of rape-supportive behavior among men as well as predictive of women's self-reported high risk behaviors given certain attitudes toward sexual activity among the women. The authors propose that the CDRABS may be useful for measuring students' initial attitudes and behaviors as well as serving as an instrument in the evaluation of date rape prevention programs designed to enhance awareness of date rape prevention.

Topics: College; evaluation; male-female relations; prevention; risk

Lira, L. R., Koss, M. P., & Russo, N. F. (1999). Mexican American women's definitions of rape and sexual abuse. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 21, 236-265.

This paper addresses the concept of rape from the perspective of Mexican American immigrant women living in America. It begins with an overview of cultural meanings of rape and sexual abuse and the impact thereof within an appreciation of cultural differences affected by religious norms, images of women, and notions of sexuality among Latinas. The study presented in this paper involved 17 Mexican American women living in Arizona who participated in four focus groups. Their discussions focused on issues pertaining to unwanted sexual contact. Definitions elicited from these discussions included notions of "rapto," "violacion,” and "abuso sexual." Furthermore, the women discussed child rape and abuse, adult rape and abuse, the causes of rape, wife rape, the causes of wife rape, and ultimately, the silence of victims. The intermingling of traditional and modern meanings of such concepts should not be underestimated nor easily overlooked when addressing the issue of rape among Latinas. Research, prevention, intervention, and treatment programs must therefore be sensitive toward culturally appropriate approaches to this issue and must be mindful of the language used to express the various experiences and perceptions in order to gage an accurate assessment of the prevalence of rape among Latinas. Due to the significance of silence and the rape experiences reported by the participants, it is very likely that underreporting is a grave reality among Latinas.

Topics: Male-female relations; marital rape; racial/ethnic differences; underserved populations

Lisak, D., & Ivan, C. (1995). Deficits in intimacy and empathy in sexually aggressive men. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 10(3), 296-308.

The focus of this article is to test three hypotheses about the gender socialization of sexually aggressive men. Two studies are presented that compare non-aggressive men to sexually aggressive men. The first study uses a sample of 15 self-reported rapists and 15 control subjects. The second study uses a sample of 198 undergraduate students. The findings support the “gender-socialization” theory of sexual aggression, suggesting that men who reject “feminine” attributes will also be likely to reject intimacy and will have an increased likelihood of acting out aggressively toward women.

Topics: Male-female relations; risk

Magley, V. J., Waldo, C. R., Drasgow, F., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (1999). The impact of sexual harassment on military personnel: Is it the same for men and women? Military Psychology, 11(3), 283-302.

This study compared outcomes of sexual harassment for men and women utilizing data from the US Department of Defense's (1995) gender issues survey. Service members (22,372 female and 5,924 male) responded to 23 of 26 Sexual Experiences Questionnaire--Department of Defense items which were used to measure sexual harassment. Results indicate that women were more likely to experience sexual harassment than men. Results also indicated that women almost always experienced sexual harassment from men while men were somewhat more likely to experience sexual harassment from other men. Overall, sexual harassment is more impactful for women. The results also indicated that in those cases where the experiences are similar, males and females have comparable psychological, health, and job-related outcomes.

Topics: Effects; harassment; military

Malamuth, N. M., Linz, D., Heavey, C. L., Barnes, G., et al. (1995). Using the confluence model of sexual aggression to predict men's conflict with women: A 10-year follow-up study. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 69, 353-369.

The research presented in this article analyzes some of the characteristics of men who are likely to engage in sexual aggression. Sexual aggression is divided into two potential types: hostile masculinity and promiscuous-impersonal sexual orientation. The sample consisted of a group of men who were studied, through self-reports, in early adulthood and then subsequently studied, also through self-reports, ten years later. Some of the female partners of these men were also questioned. Using the confluence model of sexual aggression, it was determined that several variables can be identified as contributing to men’s sexual aggression and other conflicts with women. Future research is discussed.

Topics: Male-female relations; perpetration; risk

McCaughey, M., & King, N. (1995). Rape education videos: Presenting mean women instead of dangerous men. Teaching Sociology, 23, 374-388.

This paper addresses two methods of rape prevention education that employ videos. The first focuses on "dangerous men" by presenting students with visual examples of male brutality against women in which women are depicted as vulnerable, weak, and overpowered. While disturbing and perhaps capable of inciting awareness of violence against women, they may also contribute toward promoting certain stereotypes concerning male physical strength and female weakness and submission. The second type of video – and the one analyzed in this study – draws upon scenes from movies wherein women are depicted as powerful, armed, and aggressive. Based on students' reactions to this type of video, depictions of aggressive women destabilize men's sense of physical power and replace that confidence with the realization that women have the potential for an alternative response to violence against them.

Topics: Curriculum; male-female relations; prevention

Ménard, K. S., Hall, G. C. N., Phung, A. H., Ghebrial, M. F. E., & Martin, L. (2003). Gender differences in sexual harassment and coercion in college students: Developmental, individual, and situational determinants. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 18, 1222-1239.

The focus of this study was to learn more about possible gender differences in sexual coercion and harassment behaviors by examining predictors of these behaviors. The researchers hypothesized that developmental, individual, and situational determinants will have additive effects on sexually harassing and coercive behaviors. Additionally, individual differences will mediate the relationship between developmental factors (i.e., child and adult sexual victimization) and sexual harassment and coercion. Lastly, alcohol expectancies are expected to affect sexual aggression. College students were recruited for this study, with 148 males and 278 female students participating. They were assigned to groups varying in size and were instructed to complete questionnaires pertaining to their sexual attitudes and experiences. These questionnaires included measures concerning child and adult sexual abuse, personality traits, and alcohol expectancies as well as nonsexually aggressive, sexually harassing, and coercive behaviors. As was predicted, men scored higher on both the sexual harassment and sexual coercion scales while women had significantly higher scores on the adult victimization scales. Furthermore, a significant correlation between sexual harassment and child sexual abuse was found for the men, in contrast to the women. There were no significant gender differences on the child sex abuse or the alcohol expectancies scales. In conclusion, findings support the first hypothesis that developmental factors, individual traits, and alcohol expectancies predicted men’s and women’s sexually harassing and coercive behavior. Nonetheless, analyses pertaining to the mediating role of individual differences yielded mixed results. Suggestions for future research are presented.

Topics: Alcohol; college; harassment; male-female relations

Muehlenhard, C. L., Friedman, D. E., & Thomas, C. M. (1985). Is date rape justifiable? The effects of dating activity, who initiated, who paid, and men's attitudes toward women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 9, 297-309.

This article focuses on how date rape can be rated as justifiable by male undergraduate students, based on the circumstances. Two studies are presented in this article in which male undergraduate students are given various written vignettes about the date of two characters. Rape was rated as more justifiable if the couple went to his apartment, if the woman – rather than the man – initiated the date, and when the man paid for the date. The implications of these results are discussed, as are suggestions for further study.

Topics: College; male-female relations; myths/stereotypes

Muehlenhard, C., & Linton, M. (1987). Date rape and sexual aggression in dating situations: Incidence and risk factors. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 34, 186-196.

This study assessed the incidence of, and risk factor, for date rape and other forms of male-against-female sexual aggression in dating situations. Results showed that 77.6% of the women and 57.3% of the men had been involved in some form of sexual aggression. Risk factors included the man initiating the date, paying all the expenses, and driving; miscommunication about sex; heavy alcohol or drug use; "parking”; men's acceptance of traditional sex roles, interpersonal violence, adversarial attitudes about relationships, and rape myths. The length of time that dating partners had known each other seemed unrelated to the risk of sexual assault. The authors discuss implications of their findings for rape prevention programs.

Topics: Alcohol; male-female relations; myths/stereotypes; perpetration; prevalence; risk

O'Keefe, M., & Treister, L. (1998). Victims of dating violence among high school students: Are the predictors different for males and females? Violence Against Women, 4, 195-223.

This study examines whether predictors of dating violence differ for males and females. Predictors are grouped according to three categories: sociodemographic, contextual, and situational. The sociodemographic category includes ethnicity and family SES. The contextual domain is comprised of distal predictors including: experiencing physical aggression, accepting violence, inter-parental aggression, community and school violence, interpersonal control, and self-esteem. Situational predictors are proximal and include: relationship satisfaction, relationship seriousness, length of dating relationships, number of dating relationships, relationship conflict, and inflicting dating violence. Separate analyses are conducted for males and females. Results indicate different patterns of predictors for males and females and that, while both sexes report similar motivations for engaging in dating violence, males report initiating dating violence more frequently (if equal responsibility was not declared). Results also indicate that the effects of the violence are more severe for females.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; male-female relations; perpetration; risk

O'Sullivan, L. F., Byers, E. S., & Finkelman, L. (1998). A comparison of male and female college students' experiences of sexual coercion. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 22, 177-195.

The current research focuses on the phenomenology of men and women's experience of sexual coercion. College students (N = 433), who responded to an anonymous survey, were randomly selected as participants. More men than women reported being sexually coercive in the preceding year. Many similarities were noted between men and women in the context in which the coercion took place. Women expressed greater resistance to sexual coercion than men and had stronger negative emotional reactions. These findings emphasize the need to reassess current approaches to interpreting prevalence of sexual coercion and direct attention to the circumstances surrounding sexual coercion. These findings also accentuate the need to educate both men and women about men and women's sexuality and sexual socialization.

Topics: College; male-female relations; prevalence

Pinzone-Glover, H. A., Gidycz, C. A., & Jacobs, C. (1998). An acquaintance rape prevention program: Effects on attitudes toward women, rape-related attitudes, and perceptions of rape scenarios. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 22, 605-621.

The authors investigated the effects of an acquaintance rape prevention program on college students' attitudes toward rape and attitudes toward women, perceptions of acquaintance rape scenarios, and rape empathy. Participants (N = 152) were led to believe that they were participating in two separate experiments in order to decrease demand characteristics. Results indicate that intervention-group men and women became more empathic toward the victim than the control group was at post intervention. Within the intervention group, men changed more in their attitudes toward women post intervention than did women. In addition to positive attitude change, results with the date rape scenarios suggested that intervention-group men became more certain of their definitions of rape situations post intervention. Prior to the intervention, women were generally more certain of their definitions than were men, with intervention-group men approximating women's responses post intervention.

Topics: College; male-female relations; prevention

Santana, M., Raj, A., Decker, M., La Marche, A., & Silverman, J. (2006). Masculine gender roles associated with increased sexual risk and intimate partner violence perpetration among young adult men. Journal of Urban Health, 83, 575-585. [Posted October 2006.]

Key Points: Researchers found that men who believed in traditional male gender roles were more likely to have committed intimate partner violence within the past year than men with less traditional beliefs.

Abstract: A group of 283 men, aged 18-35, were recruited at a community health center in Boston. The men were mostly Hispanic (74.9%) and Black (21.9%), and 55% were not born in the continental US. In the previous year, 40% reported committing one or more types of intimate partner violence (IPV): sexual violence (28.3%); physical violence (27.6%); and violence causing injury and/or need for medical services (13.8%). Men who had traditional male gender role beliefs were more likely to have committed intimate partner violence (IPV) within the past year and to have unprotected vaginal sex with a primary partner than men with less traditional beliefs. However, traditional beliefs were not associated with having multiple female partners, forcing unprotected sex, or engaging in unprotected anal sex. Levels of violence were the same regardless of race/ethnicity, country of origin, or acculturation. Only a low level of education (not having a high school diploma or GED) was associated with having traditional beliefs and with committing higher rates of IPV.

The results do not imply a cause-and-effect relationship between IPV and traditional beliefs. However, interventions to reduce IPV and sexual risk among young men may be more successful if they promote less traditional gender role beliefs.

Topics: Male-female relations; myths/stereotypes; perpetration

Schissel, B. (2000). Boys against girls: The structural and interpersonal dimensions of violent patriarchal culture in the lives of young men. Violence Against Women, 6, 960-986.

This article contends that male youth violence against female youth is a formidable social problem that originates largely within the confines of patriarchal/profit-driven culture. It is noted that many factors that cause young men to be aggressive and abusive to young women originate within cultures of achievement such as sports, where aggression is equated with success and where girls and women are literally and figuratively relegated to exploited or denigrated positions. Using both an empirically based causal analysis of youth in Canada and a more descriptive analysis of several male contexts, the author tests and describes how personal and interpersonal experiences influence aggression toward young women and how these experiences often arise in contexts that are both ideological and profit driven.

Topics: Community attitudes/responses; male-female relations

Short, L. M., McMahon, P. M., Chervin, D. D., Shelley, G. A., Lezin, N., Sloop, K. S., et al. (2000). Survivors' identification of protective factors and early warning signs for intimate partner violence. Violence Against Women, 6, 272-285.

This study proposed hypotheses concerning factors that may place women at risk for an abusive relationship, the potential early warning signs for physical partner violence, and the potential protective factors for cessation of violence once it has begun. Questions addressed women in violent sexual relationships: reasons women remain in abusive relationships, factors that may end the violence, barriers, potential early warning signs, resources, racial differences, and location differences. Urban and rural African American and White women (N = 168) in five US regions were recruited for 22 focus groups. Participants were between the ages of 18–50 years old, had been exposed to physical violence in intimate relationships, and were free of violence for at least 6 months at the time of the study. Similarities were found among all groups in their experiences of intimate partner violence. Furthermore, women in the focus groups stated that once violence began within their relationships, it escalated over time. The authors suggest implications for intervention. For example, the information gleaned from the participants may be informative to institutions that are active in removing women from violent relationships. Particularly, three areas of prevention implications were discussed. These include: the need for awareness in identifying early warning signs of intimate partner violence, the significance of family abuse history, and the need to educate adolescents – especially young girls – prior to the development of any intimate relationships.

Topics: Male-female relations; prevention; racial/ethnic differences; risk; survivors

West, C. M., & Rose, S. (2000). Dating aggression among low income African American youth: An examination of gender differences and antagonistic beliefs. Violence Against Women, 6, 470-494.

The authors investigated the prevalence of aggression inflicted and sustained in dating relationships for 171 low income African American 16–24 year olds. Survey data revealed that more women were victims of choking, attempted forced intercourse, and hurt feelings. As perpetrators, more women reported making threats, throwing objects, and hitting their partner. However, men perpetrated more serious sexual and psychological aggression, including forced breast fondling, attempted forced intercourse, and making a partner feel inferior and degrading her. Women victims of sexual aggression, when compared to nonvictims, expressed more agreement with adversarial sexual beliefs regarding male-female relationships. More than one-third of the participants endorsed antagonistic beliefs concerning Black male-female relationships. Suggestions for intervention are presented.

Topics: Male-female relations; racial/ethnic differences

White, J. W., & Kowalski, R. M. (1998). Male violence toward women: An integrated perspective. In R. G. Geen & E. I. Donnerstein (Eds.), Human aggression: Theories, research, and implications for social policy (pp. 203-228). San Diego, CA: Academic Press, Inc.

This paper focuses on male intimate aggression/violence directed toward females. Single and multifactor theories that have been used to explain male violence against women are described. An integrative contextual developmental perspective is provided to organize information about violence against women. This model provides a meta-theoretical framework within which more specific theories and hypotheses can be considered. The evidence concerning the various forms of violence against women is summarized, including prevalence and characteristics of the perpetrator, victim, and circumstances surrounding each of the various forms of aggression. This approach is adopted to emphasize that an individual's behavior can be best understood by considering the impact of historical, sociocultural, and social factors across time on cognitive and motivational processes that result in aggression and violence.

Topics: Male-female relations; perpetration; prevalence; theory

Updated 08/01/07