Belknap, J., Fisher, B. S., & Cullen, F. T. (1999). The development of a comprehensive measure of the sexual victimization of college women. Violence Against Women, 5, 185-214.

These authors indicate that sexual victimization has only recently been identified as an important problem on college and university campuses. They point out that researchers have used a number of different methodologies and sources of data to describe the extent and scope of sexual victimization of college women. The authors state that these studies are often flawed by an abbreviated conceptualization of sexual victimization (one that omits sexual stalking and harassment) and by the failure to distinguish between the different ranges of both more and less serious sexual victimizations. This article also presents a measure of sexual victimization that includes incident reports.

Topics: College; harassment; prevalence; stalking

Burian, B. K., Yanico, B.J., & Martinez, C. R. (1998). Group gender composition effects on judgments of sexual harassment. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 22, 465-480.

A mock jury approach was used with 116 male and 113 female undergraduates to see whether participant gender, researcher gender, and group gender composition (i.e., ratio of women to men) impact individual judgments about sexual harassment in an ambiguous scenario. More women (58.4%) made affirmative sexual harassment judgments as compared to men (35.3%). Results also indicated that when a mock jury was led by male researchers, men in groups who were outnumbered by women were less likely to believe that sexual harassment was present in the scenario given. The authors posit that ingroup and outgroup behaviors may explain these results. In addition, future studies on this topic could explore the group context of decision making as an unit of analysis, thereby analyzing how situational variables may affect cases of sexual harassment.

Topics: College; harassment

Cooper, A., Golden, G. H., & Kent-Ferraro, J. (2002). Online sexual behaviors in the workplace: How can human resource departments and employee assistance programs respond effectively? Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 9, 149-165.

The primary purpose of this article is to educate those in the workforce about the negative impact of sexual behaviors within the workplace. Along with outlining legal and social ramifications of virtual sexuality, the authors also suggest preventative measures that employers can use to inform employees about sexuality in the workplace. The article describes prior research pertaining to the prevalence of online sexual activity at work, as well as varying organizational policies toward sexual compulsive behavior and the legal issues involved. The authors provide recommendations to protect organizations and employees from unnecessary litigation exposure as well as factors that should be considered when an employee is found to be engaging in online sexual activity within the workplace. Furthermore, they outline potential goals that could be incorporated into prevention and awareness programs that, when implemented within an organization, may enhance employee safety, workplace satisfaction, and overall efficiency.

Topics: Harassment; legal responses; media/internet

Cortina, L. M., Swan, S. Fitzgerald, L. F., & Waldo, C. (1998). Sexual harassment and assault: Chilling the climate for women in academia. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 22, 419-441.

This article documents the widespread and harmful extent of sexual harassment and sexual assault on college campuses. The authors report that few studies have investigated the impact of harassment and assault in academia. For this study, 1,037 female undergraduate and graduate students were surveyed regarding their experiences with sexual harassment and assault and how victimization affected their scholarship. The extent and impact of double victimization was also investigated. Issues of sexual orientation and race/ethnicity are examined, with membership in different groups affecting victimization incidence.

Topics: College; harassment; racial/ethnic differences

Dekker, I., & Barling, J. (1998). Personal and organizational predictors of workplace sexual harassment of women by men. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 3, 7-18.

Workplace and personal variables were studied to see their relationship to sexual harassment in a study of 278 male university faculty and staff. Results indicate that, in general, organizational variables and beliefs about sexual harassment were predictive of gender-based sexual harassment. Organizational efforts to reduce or prevent sexual harassment are discussed.

Topics: Harassment; male-female relations

Donovan, M. A., & Drasgow, F. (1999). Do men's and women's experiences of sexual harassment differ? An examination of the differential test functioning of the Sexual Experiences Questionnaire. Military Psychology, 11, 265-282.

In this article, the authors investigate whether the Sexual Experiences Questionnaire (SEQ), which was originally developed to assess women's experiences of sexual harassment, could be used to assess men's experiences. Results indicate that the SEQ does not function equally well across men and women unless the 4 items that focus on a sexist environment are removed. The implications of these results are discussed.

Topics: Harassment

Fineran, S. (2002). Sexual harassment between same-sex peers: Intersection of mental health, homophobia, and sexual violence in schools. Social Work, 47, 65-74.

This article defines peer sexual harassment by drawing upon a multi-perspective model that incorporates legal and historical elements. For example, the authors discuss major court decisions that have defined and redefined sexual harassment within both educational and work environment settings as well as across age levels and between same-sex peers. Prior studies indicating the prevalence of sexual harassment are described, followed by a detailed description of the legal evolution and response to sexual harassment within educational and workplace settings. Mental health implications for victims of sexual harassment are discussed. Furthermore, school policy implications are reviewed, including the need to educate students as well as school personnel in identifying sexual harassment. The authors conclude by providing recommendations for mental health practitioners as well as describing factors requiring consideration when counseling students who experience sexual harassment from same-sex peers.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; harassment; legal responses

Foulis, D., & McCabe, M. P. (1997). Sexual harassment: Factors affecting attitudes and perceptions. Sex Roles, 37, 773-798.

The authors examine how gender, gender role, gender role stereotypes, age, occupation, and experience of sexual harassment impact attitudes and perceptions of sexual harassment among high school and university students, as well as workers (123 females, 73 males). These variables were also investigated in terms of their relationship to the experience of sexual harassment. The results of this study are discussed within the framework of social learning and script theories.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; college; harassment

Gruber, J. E. (1998). The impact of male work environments and organizational policies on women's experiences of sexual harassment. Gender & Society, 12, 301-320.

This article reviews the organizational dynamics that engender hostility and sexual harassment of women according to three types of variables: women's cultural status (age and marital status), occupational and workplace sex ratios, and organizational policies and organizational procedures for dealing with sexual harassment problems. A sample of 1,990 Canadian women (mean age 34 years) who had worked within the past year were contacted by telephone and interviewed regarding their experiences with sexual harassment. Results indicate that the extent of contact with men was a key predictor of harassment including sexual comments, sexual categorical remarks, and sexual materials. Informational methods of harassment reduction were less successful than proactively oriented interventions. The authors conclude that organizations that take steps to directly address sexual harassment are more likely to be successful in curtailing the problem than those relying on awareness techniques.

Topics: Harassment; prevention

Ilies, R., Hauserman, N., Schwochau, S., & Stibal, J. (2003). Reported incidence rates of work-related sexual harassment in the United States: Using meta-analysis to explain reported rate disparities. Personnel Psychology, 56, 607-631.

The focus of this meta-analysis was to examine methodological and organizational factors that affect incidence rates of sexual harassment within the workplace and to present cumulative estimates of incidence rates. Specifically, researchers investigated the extent of sexual harassment, as measured by direct query and behavioral experiences, as well as the extent of the difference in incidence, as estimated by the use of these two sampling methods. Yet another auxiliary goal for researchers involved comparing possible differences between convenience and probability samples. Lastly, researchers hypothesized that structured bureaucratic organizations would tend to have more sexual harassment than organizations that are not as hierarchical. Results revealed that measures focused on assessing sexual harassment through direct questioning, combined with probability sampling, led to considerably lower estimates of sexual harassment incidence when compared to convenience sampling and measures using questionnaires that listed behaviors believed to constitute sexual harassment. Furthermore, findings suggest differences in reported incidence based on work location, with academia averaging the lowest on direct query sexual harassment while military samples averaged the highest. By combining multiple studies, researchers hope to further expand on research pertaining to sexual harassment.

Topics: Disclosure; harassment; prevalence

Kasinsky, R. G. (1998). Tailhook and the construction of sexual harassment in the media: "Rowdy navy boys" and the women who made a difference. Violence Against Women, 4, 81-99.

This article examines how the media reported the Tailhook incident from the occurrence of the incident itself through the conclusion of military and congressional debates about its meaning 5 years later. The authors state that, although the military's cover-up of the incident was interrupted by women in the Senate, the media reports paralleled the dominant gender ideology of "boys will be boys," thereby reinforcing the view that sexual harassment is tolerable.

Topics: Harassment; military; myths/stereotypes

Kennedy, M. A., & Gorzalka, B. B. (2002). Asian and non-Asian attitudes toward rape, sexual harassment, and sexuality. Sex Roles, 46, 227-238.

North American Asians demonstrate more conservative sexual attitudes and behaviors than other ethnic groups. Research findings examining the influence of Western culture upon Asian sexual attitudes are somewhat inconsistent. Also, previous studies have failed to investigate Asians’ attitudes toward coercive sexual behaviors. The present study was designed to compare Asian and non-Asian attitudes toward both sexually coercive and noncoercive behaviors. Male and female undergraduate students (n = 205 Asian, n = 195 non-Asian) from a Canadian university volunteered to participate in the study in exchange for course credit. Participants completed a self-report questionnaire that measured attitudes toward coercive and noncoercive sexual behaviors. For attitudes on coercive sexual behaviors, 11 agree/disagree items from Burt’s Rape Myth Acceptance Scale were used, as was the 19-item Sexual Harassment Attitude Scale. All items from both scales were presented in the text of the article. The Derogatis Sexual Functioning Inventory (30-items) was used to measure attitudes on noncoercive sexual behaviors. Results indicated that Asian students held more conservative sexual attitudes than non-Asian students. Asian students were also more tolerant of sexually harassing behaviors and rape myths than non-Asian students. Regardless of ethnicity, men were more tolerant of sexual harassment and rape myths than women. Though not as strong as the previous findings, the results did indicate that the longer a student had lived in Canada, the less tolerant of rape myths and sexual harassment he/she was. Overall, these results indicate that Asian students hold more conservative attitudes on noncoercive and coercive sexual behaviors. The generalizability of these results to diverse Asian ethnicities may be limited because 92% of the study participants identified themselves as Chinese.

Topics: Harassment; myths/stereotypes; racial ethnic/differences

Lacasse, A. & Mendelson, M. J. (2007). Sexual coercion among adolescents: Victims and perpetrators. Violence Against Women, 22, 424-437. [Posted April 2007.]

Key Points: In a small sample of students in Grades 8-11, sexist beliefs were associated with being a victim of sexual harassment or coercion among girls and with perpetrating sexual harassment or coercion among boys.

Abstract: Students in a suburban Quebec school were asked if other students had verbally harassed them, made non-coercive sexual contact (e.g., unwanted kissing) or attempted to obtain sexual favors using blackmail or force in the previous 3 months. They were also asked if they had perpetrated those acts on another student. The study included 37 students who reported being victimized and 21 who reported perpetrating the behavior. These groups were then compared with a matched control sample of students.

Female students who were victims (n=27) were more likely to endorse sexist attitudes than other girls; boys who were perpetrators were more likely to endorse sexist attitudes than other boys. All victims were more likely to use drugs and alcohol than controls or perpetrators. Both victims and perpetrators were involved with more deviant behaviors than controls.

Limitations of this study include: a small sample size; students were only asked about peer-related behaviors outside of romantic relationships, which may have resulted in underreporting of victimization; and the perceived severity of the experiences was not assessed.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; harassment; myths/stereotypes; perpetration

Magley, V. J., Waldo, C. R., Drasgow, F., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (1999). The impact of sexual harassment on military personnel: Is it the same for men and women? Military Psychology, 11, 283-302.

This study compared outcomes of sexual harassment for men and women utilizing data from the US Department of Defense's (1995) gender issues survey. Service members (22,372 female and 5,924 male) responded to 23 of 26 Sexual Experiences Questionnaire--Department of Defense items which were used to measure sexual harassment. Results indicate that women were more likely to experience sexual harassment than men. Results also indicated that women almost always experienced sexual harassment from men while men were somewhat more likely to experience sexual harassment from other men. Overall, sexual harassment is more impactful for women. The results also indicated that in those cases where the experiences are similar, males and females have comparable psychological, health, and job-related outcomes.

Topics: Effects; harassment; military

Malamuth, N. M., & Thornhill, N. W. (1994). Hostile masculinity, sexual aggression, and gender-biased domineeringness in conversations. Aggressive Behavior, [Special Issue: Aggression, gender and sex: Psychosocial and psychobiological studies in humans and animals], 20, 185-193.

This research assessed the ability of certain variables to predict which men would be more domineering in conversations with a woman and/or with a man. The variables included men's self-reported sexually aggressive behavior and several components comprising a personality profile labeled "Hostile Masculinity." Data from 67 male undergraduates indicate these variables successfully predicted domineering behavior toward the female but not toward the male. Findings support theories hypothesizing that men's desire to control women and men's antisocial behavior toward them are due to specific, rather than to general, factors.

Topics: Harassment

Ménard, K. S., Hall, G. C. N., Phung, A. H., Ghebrial, M. F. E., & Martin, L. (2003). Gender differences in sexual harassment and coercion in college students: Developmental, individual, and situational determinants. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 18, 1222-1239.

The focus of this study was to learn more about possible gender differences in sexual coercion and harassment behaviors by examining predictors of these behaviors. The researchers hypothesized that developmental, individual, and situational determinants will have additive effects on sexually harassing and coercive behaviors. Additionally, individual differences will mediate the relationship between developmental factors (i.e., child and adult sexual victimization) and sexual harassment and coercion. Lastly, alcohol expectancies are expected to affect sexual aggression. College students were recruited for this study, with 148 males and 278 female students participating. They were assigned to groups varying in size and were instructed to complete questionnaires pertaining to their sexual attitudes and experiences. These questionnaires included measures concerning child and adult sexual abuse, personality traits, and alcohol expectancies as well as nonsexually aggressive, sexually harassing, and coercive behaviors. As was predicted, men scored higher on both the sexual harassment and sexual coercion scales while women had significantly higher scores on the adult victimization scales. Furthermore, a significant correlation between sexual harassment and child sexual abuse was found for the men, in contrast to the women. There were no significant gender differences on the child sex abuse or the alcohol expectancies scales. In conclusion, findings support the first hypothesis that developmental factors, individual traits, and alcohol expectancies predicted men’s and women’s sexually harassing and coercive behavior. Nonetheless, analyses pertaining to the mediating role of individual differences yielded mixed results. Suggestions for future research are presented.

Topics: Alcohol; college; harassment; male-female relations

O'Donohue, W., Downs, K., & Yeater, E. A. (1998). Sexual harassment: A review of the literature. Aggression & Violent Behavior, 3, 111-128.

The authors review research on sexual harassment related to definitional, etiological, epidemiological, treatment, prevention issues, and effects. The authors state that while there are many controversies concerning how sexual harassment is defined, it is evident that there are subtypes of sexual harassment, including such as gender harassment, unwanted sexual attention, and sexual coercion. Existing research also indicates that women are frequently affected by sexual harassment and that verbal harassment is more common than nonverbal harassment. It is common for victims of sexual harassment to experience negative psychological, work-related, and economic consequences. Suggestions for future research are offered.

Topics: Effects; harassment; prevention

Pathe, M., & Mullen, P. E. (1997). The impact of stalkers on their victims. British Journal of Psychiatry, 170, 12-17.

This article examines the findings of a study which questioned 100 victims of stalking regarding their psychological, social, and interpersonal functioning as well as their level of risk for physical and sexual assault. Most victims experienced multiple forms of harassment including: being followed, repeatedly approached, and harassed either by mail or phone. Victims were stalked from 1 month to 20 years. Of those reporting stalking, 58 were threatened and 34 experienced physical or sexual assault. Most victims (n = 94) made major changes in their work and social lives, including changing or ceasing employment (53%) and moving back home (39%). Of the stalking victims, 83% reported increased anxiety, 55% experienced intrusive flashbacks, 37% met criteria for PTSD, and 24% acknowledged suicidal ideation. Respondents also reported appetite disturbances, depressed mood, and nightmares. Results indicate that persistent stalking results in social and psychological harm to victims. The authors also discuss the inadequacy of medical and legal response systems.

Topics: Effects; harassment; stalking

Plater, M. A., & Thomas, R. E. (1998). The impact of job performance, gender, and ethnicity on the managerial review of sexual harassment allegations. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 28, 52-70.

This study examines managerial reviews of sexual harassment allegations by subordinates against supervisors. Employees (N = 573) who attended a sexual harassment seminar examined a hypothetical vignette and answered questions. Participants were asked to decide whether the behavior in the vignette was appropriate and how responsible the company was for the situation. Reviewers’ decisions were found to be influenced in distinct ways by the genders and ethnicities of reviewer and scenario participants as well as the scenario participant's job performance. Male respondents exhibited bias in favor of high-performing same-ethnicity supervisors – a bias not found in female responses. Female and non-White reviewers assessed significantly higher levels of company responsibility than did male and White respondents. The data suggest that although men and women do not seem to differ substantially in terms of what constitutes misconduct, they do differ over the company's level of responsibility.

Topics: Harassment

Rosen, L. N., & Martin, L. (1998). Predictors of tolerance of sexual harassment among male U.S. Army soldiers. Violence Against Women, 4, 491-504.

The tolerance of sexual harassment in the Army was examined in relation to three variables thought to be indicative of negative attitudes toward women. The first was a personality variable; that is, negative masculinity associated with aggressive characteristics. The second measured hostility toward women and the third measured the acceptance of women as men's equals in the Army. All three variables predicted tolerance of sexual harassment in the Army. Hostility toward women was the strongest predictor, followed by negative masculinity and acceptance of women.

Topics: Harassment; risk; underserved populations

Welsh, S. (2000). The multidimensional nature of sexual harassment: An empirical analysis of women's sexual harassment complaints. Violence Against Women, 6, 118-141.

The author addresses two questions: (1) What types of sexual harassment behaviors are experienced by women complainants? (2) Are these experiences of sexual harassment characterized by isolated or multidimensional incidents? Based on data from 296 sexual harassment complaints lodged with the Canadian Human Rights Commission between 1978 and 1993, analysis shows that women complainants experience a range of behaviors, with quid pro quo harassment occurring in only 14% of the complaints. Complaints are multidimensional and can be characterized as either containing poisoned environment harassment or quid pro quo sexual behaviors.

Topics: Harassment

Young, A., Young, A. & Fullwood, H. (2007). Adolescent online victimization. The Prevention Researcher, 14, 8-9. [Posted April 2007.]

Key Points: As Internet use becomes more common, the number of youth exposed to online sexual solicitation, sexual material, and harassment (sexual or bullying) has increased.

Abstract: In a review of three recent studies, the authors estimated national prevalence of online victimization of youth at 13% for sexual solicitation; 34% for exposure to unwanted sexual material; and 9% for any type of harassment. The majority of incidents was not distressing and was not reported to adults.

Risk factors for online victimization included older age (youth 14-17 were at higher risk than younger children) and gender (girls were more likely to experience sexual solicitation or harassment than boys). In one study, 60% of youth gave out personal information in an online questionnaire or form. About 45% gave that information to someone they had met online.

Possible prevention strategies include frank discussion by adults about Internet victimization so that youth are better equipped to avoid it and deal with it if it happens. The authors recommended making youth aware of the possible consequences of sharing personal information online. Adults can also prepare youth to take action if they are victimized: removing themselves from the situation; changing screen name; and reporting the incident to prevent others from being victimized.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; harassment; media/ Internet; prevalence; prevention; risk

Updated 08/01/07