NOTE: These summaries were written by SVPEP and are based on the original papers. The information available on this web site is provided as a public service and does not necessarily reflect the opinion of the U.S. Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, the Arizona Department of Health Services, or the University of Arizona.

Ahrens, C. E., & Campbell, R. (2000). Assisting rape victims as they recover from rape: The impact on friends. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 15, 959-986.

Providing the appropriate response to a survivor of rape can be an overwhelming challenge. Rape disclosure often occurs among friends and/or family but many supporters are as unprepared to help as the victim was unprepared for having to survive the rape in the first place. As such, helpers’ responses can vary from providing negative reactions to offering sincere emotional support. Previous research has demonstrated that negative reactions (e.g., blame, denial, rejection, critical judgments) can significantly impair a victim’s postrape functioning. In this article, a brief review of the range of affective and interpersonal responses is offered along with a discussion of victimization perspective theory. This is followed by an empirical study involving 60 friends of rape survivors. Results revealed three patterns of helping and friendship outcomes: positive responses and positive enhancement of the friendship, neutral responses with no alteration of the friendship, and negative responses (i.e., perceived distress and ineffectiveness) involving negative developments in the friendship. The authors conclude by presenting implications and applications of this information toward assisting rape survivors and their support systems.

Topics: Disclosure; effects; survivors

Bachman, R. (1998). The factors related to rape reporting behavior and arrest: New evidence from the National Crime Victimization Survey. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 25, 8-29.

This article draws upon data from the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS, 1992-94) to examine police-reporting behavior by survivors of rape and sexual assault and the probability of an arrest being made in response to a report. Bachman provides a brief overview of rape law reforms in America followed by an analysis of several contextual characteristics. These include victim-offender relationship, location of victimization, offender's use of a weapon, extent of injury sustained by the victim, and three variables pertaining to the demographics of the sample (i.e., victim's age, marital status at time of offense, and age). Dependent variables in the analysis addressed police-reporting behavior and arrest of offender subsequent to the crime. The analyses focused on lone-offender, male-perpetrated rapes, and sexual assaults against adult women. Results suggest that victims who sustain physical injuries (in addition to the rape or sexual assault) or women who are threatened by a weapon during the attack are more likely to report the offense to the police than are other types of victims. In addition, it was found that African American victims of rape were more likely to report the offense to the police. The probability of an arrest being made, however, does not seem to be related to any of the contextual characteristics in the study. This study is limited in that it did not examine reporting behavior of victimizations where multiple offenders were involved nor did it examine when the victim was a minor or when the victim was male. Bachman concludes by suggesting that the examination of other barriers affecting reporting behavior, in addition to those described above, is still necessary since less than one quarter of the rapes in this sample were ever reported to the police.

Topics: Disclosure; survivors

Bondurant, B. (2001). University women's acknowledgment of rape: Individual, situational, and social factors. Violence Against Women, 7, 294-314.

The authors examine individual, situational, and social predictors of university women's admission of rape experiences. Results indicate that only individual and situational factors uniquely predicted acknowledgment. Women tend to acknowledge a rape if they experienced higher levels of violence during the rape, possessed factors congruent with the acquaintance of a rape script, and blamed their behavior for the rape. All women tended to blame the perpetrator more than themselves. Implications for rape awareness programs are discussed.

Topics: College; disclosure

Campbell, R. & Raja, S. (2005). The sexual assault and secondary victimization of female veterans: Help-seeking experiences with military and civilian social systems. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29, 97-106. [Posted April 2007.]

Key Points: Among women veterans and reservists, 39% had been sexually assaulted at least once in adulthood.

Abstract: The study sample consisted of 268 primarily low income, African-American (77%) female veterans and reservists seeking medical care at a VA clinic. Out of 104 sexual assaults described, 38% occurred while a woman was in military service, and 82% of those were committed by a military peer or supervisor.

Similar numbers of victims of military and non-military assault sought medical treatment after an attack. Although military medical providers engaged in fewer secondary victimization behaviors than non-military providers, victims were more likely to have negative feelings after treatment by military medical personnel. Military victims were more likely to have reported the assault to legal personnel (59%) than non-military victims (26%). Both groups experienced similar overall levels of legal secondary victimization. All victims who encountered any secondary victimization behaviors reported more post-traumatic stress symptoms.

In light of the high prevalence rates, the researchers recommended that the VA expand services such as the Women Veterans’ Comprehensive Health Centers to create environments where women can receive respectful and appropriate treatment.

Topics: Disclosure; military; secondary victimization

Clay-Warner, J., & Burt, C. H. (2005). Rape reporting after reforms: Have times really changed? Violence Against Women, 11, 150-176.

This article outlines changes in rape reporting behavior in the aftermath of reforms such as those instituted by rape shield statutes and definitional and evidentiary requirements for rape as a crime. Furthermore, the authors review the current literature on rape reform legislation, changes in reporting behaviors, and factors impacting the reporting of rape. In this study, analyses of data collected from the National Violence Against Women (NVAW) Survey demonstrated that, although rapes committed post-1990 are more likely to have been reported than those committed prior to 1974, despite legislative reforms in this domain simple rapes are under-reported in comparison to aggravated rapes.

Topics: Disclosure; legal responses; prevalence

Connop, V., & Petrak, J. (2004). The impact of sexual assault on heterosexual couples. Sexual & Relationship Therapy, 19, 29-38.

The impact of sexual assault upon the male partners of female sexual assault victims is an under-researched area. The purpose of this study was to examine how male partners react to their partner’s sexual assault and what happens to the couples’ interactions. Participants were recruited through a sexual assault clinic and through press advertisements. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 6 males whose previous or current partners had been sexually assaulted and with 3 females who had been sexually assaulted and had disclosed their assault to their partners. Interviews revealed that 8 of the 9 participants had a partner who had experienced acquaintance rape – or, in the case of the female participants, had been the victim of acquaintance rape. In analyzing the interviews, four themes were identified: (a) the male partner’s role in providing support, (b) communication, (c) anger and blame, and (d) the impact of the assault on the sexual relationship. Many of the male participants indicated that they felt they should put their partner’s needs first and felt exhausted by their role in supporting their partner. Men also revealed a common assumption relating to socio-cultural scripts concerning heterosexual relationships; namely, the idea that they ought to protect their women. Relationship disturbances and communication problems were also reported to have increased in the aftermath of the assault. While at times the men enunciated rape myths, they could not be categorized either as viewing the rape as a sexual act or as a violent act (as the prior research study had indicated). A final issue noted by participants was how the sexual assault increased their difficulty in performing and enjoying sexual activity. Suggested implications of the findings for service provision include the benefit of couple-based counseling and counseling to support male partners’ support needs and psychosexual issues.

Topics: Disclosure; effects; male-female relations; myths/stereotypes; survivors

DeKeseredy, W. S. (2000). Current controversies on defining nonlethal violence against women in intimate heterosexual relationships: Empirical implications. Violence Against Women, 6, 728-746.

The author indicates that there is wide spread disagreement about how partner violence should be defined and that these differences lead to a variety of problems with research (including disclosure) and policy. The author also describes currently used definitions and provides suggestions for achieving agreement in defining nonlethal violence against women in heterosexual relationships.

Topics: Disclosure; evaluation

Hanson, R., Kievit, L., Saunders, B., Smith, D., Kilpatrick, D., Resnick, H., & Ruggiero, K. (2003). Correlates of adolescent reports of sexual assault: Findings from the National Survey of Adolescents. Child Maltreatment, 8, 261-272.

Studies on the factors that lead to child disclosure of sexual abuse reveal mixed results. The purpose of this study was to determine which demographic variables and sexual abuse incident characteristics were related to disclosure. Another purpose of this study was to determine whether correlates of sexual abuse disclosure differed by gender and race/ethnicity. Data from 4,023 adolescents was obtained through a national probability telephone survey. Measures included penetration and nonpenetration sexual assault, relationship to the perpetrator, degree of life threat, physical injury, victim substance use, disclosure of sexual assault to anyone, and knowledge of any formal reports made regarding the sexual assault. Results indicated that 8.1% of respondent adolescents had experienced a sexual assault. Regarding disclosure, about two thirds of the victims reported that they had told someone else about the sexual assault and about one third of these instances had also been formally reported. For all adolescent victims, use of substances did not reduce the likelihood of disclosure, and victims assaulted by a relative were the most likely to disclose. Girls and European Americans were more likely to disclose than boys and African Americans, respectively. However, among European Americans, gender did not influence disclosure. On the other hand, African American females were 7 times more likely to disclose than African American males were. Also, for girls and European Americans only, sustaining an injury during the sexual assault reduced the likelihood of disclosure. While, for African Americans penetration assault was associated with disclosure, life threat was associated with disclosure for European Americans. Due to their low rates of disclosure, these results indicate that careful assessment of sexual assault among African American children and boys may be particularly important. Additional research investigating correlates of sexual assault for other ethnic groups (e.g., Asians, Hispanics, and Native Americans) is also suggested.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; disclosure; racial/ethnic differences

 Heise, L., Ellsberg, M., & Gottemoeller, M. (1999). Ending violence against women. Population Reports, Series L, Number 11, 1-43.

This report provides an admirably thorough review of the various dimensions concerning violence against women across the globe. The authors begin by addressing the concept of gender-based violence, how health care providers can help, and what societal responses should entail in curbing the problem. The report discusses in detail the prevalence and ramifications of intimate partner abuse, sexual coercion, impact of violence on women’s reproductive health, threats to health and development, the role of health providers in recognizing and treating the effects of violence, and finally, an agenda for change. The report includes numerous charts presenting, for example, cross-cultural data on issues related to rates of approval of wife-beating and prevalence of forced first intercourse in various countries. The report also includes examples of posters used to educate women and increase awareness of the issues in different countries as well as several useful charts with instructions and guidelines for health care providers. This is an invaluable resource for anyone interested in understanding violence against women on a global level.

Topics: Community attitudes/responses; disclosure; effects; injury; male-female relations; marital rape; medical response; myths/stereotypes; perpetration; prevalence; prevention; racial/ethnic differences; risk; statistics; underserved populations; vulnerability

Hilton, N., Harris, G., & Rice, M. (1998). On the validity of self-reported rates of interpersonal violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 13, 58-72.

Many researchers assume that prevalence and incidence estimates of sexual violence are valid and can be extrapolated or interpolated to different time frames. The authors assessed three studies that contained a total of 687 high school students. Respondents gave absolute estimates of nonphysical, physical, and sexual aggression during the past 1 month, 6 months, and 12 months that did not differ significantly. Estimates were sensitive to item severity, sex of perpetrator, and sex of victim but were insensitive to the time period over which they were asked to estimate. This suggests that self-reports of interpersonal violence may be strongly affected by other factors in addition to the number of times the events have actually occurred.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; disclosure; statistics

Ilies, R., Hauserman, N., Schwochau, S., & Stibal, J. (2003). Reported incidence rates of work-related sexual harassment in the United States: Using meta-analysis to explain reported rate disparities. Personnel Psychology, 56, 607-631.

The focus of this meta-analysis was to examine methodological and organizational factors that affect incidence rates of sexual harassment within the workplace and to present cumulative estimates of incidence rates. Specifically, researchers investigated the extent of sexual harassment, as measured by direct query and behavioral experiences, as well as the extent of the difference in incidence, as estimated by the use of these two sampling methods. Yet another auxiliary goal for researchers involved comparing possible differences between convenience and probability samples. Lastly, researchers hypothesized that structured bureaucratic organizations would tend to have more sexual harassment than organizations that are not as hierarchical. Results revealed that measures focused on assessing sexual harassment through direct questioning, combined with probability sampling, led to considerably lower estimates of sexual harassment incidence when compared to convenience sampling and measures using questionnaires that listed behaviors believed to constitute sexual harassment. Furthermore, findings suggest differences in reported incidence based on work location, with academia averaging the lowest on direct query sexual harassment while military samples averaged the highest. By combining multiple studies, researchers hope to further expand on research pertaining to sexual harassment.

Topics: Disclosure; harassment; prevalence

Ruback, R. B., Ménard, K. S., Outlaw, M. C., & Shaffer, J. N. (1999). Normative advice to campus crime victims: Effects of gender, age, and alcohol. Violence and Victims, 14, 381-396.

This article addresses three studies that were designed to examine the impact of normative advice on reporting criminal behavior to the police as a function of crime characteristics, victim characteristics, and subject factors. The first study involved a between-subjects design wherein participants responded to a questionnaire concerning alcohol consumption, type of crime, gender of victim, and gender and age of subject. The second study used the same questionnaire as the first but described the victim as being either 18 or 21 years old. The third study examined whether the results concerning normative advice in the first two studies would be replicated when participants were asked about alternative options to calling the police, given the criminal situations addressed in the original questionnaire. Results from the three studies reveal that severity of the crime, gender of victim, and age of victim form the basis of most individuals' decisions to notify the police. In addition, the authors made the following conclusions: (1) notifying the police was considered most appropriate when the victim was a female or an older person and when the crime was more serious, (2) the relationship between the victim and the offender affects the type of advice victims will receive from others, (3) reporting was considered inappropriate when the victim was underage and had been drinking prior to the crime, (4) females viewed notifying the police more favorably than did males, (5) most subjects consider it more appropriate for females to report a crime than for males, and (6) younger subjects were less likely to advise reporting a crime than were older subjects. The article concludes by suggesting that the perceived stigma associated with reporting a crime involving underage alcohol consumption by the victim may be a significant factor contributing to the underreporting of serious crimes on college campuses.

Topics: Alcohol; disclosure; legal responses; myths/stereotypes

Smith, D.W., Letourneau, E.J., Saunders, B.E., Kilpatrick, D.G., Resnick, H.S., & Best, C.L. (2000). Delay in disclosure of childhood rape: Results from a national survey. Child Abuse & Neglect, 24, 273-287.

Researchers gathered representative data regarding the length of time women who were raped before age 18 delayed prior to disclosing such rapes, whom they disclosed to, and variables that predicted disclosure within one month. Data were gathered from 3,220 Wave II respondents from the National Women’s Study (Resnick et al., see record 1994-25706-001), a nationally representative telephone survey of women’s experiences with trauma and mental health. Of these, 288 retrospectively reported at least one rape prior to their 18th birthday. Details of rape experiences were analyzed to identify predictors of disclosure within 1 month. Fully 28% of child rape victims reported that they had never told anyone about their child rape prior to the research interview and 47% did not disclose for over 5 years postrape. Close friends were the most common confidants. Younger age at the time of rape, family relationship with the perpetrator, and experiencing a series of rapes were associated with disclosure latencies longer than one month. Shorter delays were associated with stranger rapes. Logistic regression revealed that the age at rape and knowing the perpetrator were independently predictive of delayed disclosure.

Topics: Disclosure

Ullman, S.E. (1996). Social reactions, coping strategies, and self-blame attributions in adjustment to sexual assault. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 20, 505-526.

In this paper, the author presents how social reaction to rape disclosure affects sexual assault victims. A mail survey was completed by a convenience sample of adult sexual assault victims (N=155). Information was obtained on sexual assaults and postassault experiences. As expected, all negative social reactions were strongly associated with increased psychological symptoms, while most positive social reactions were unrelated to adjustment. The only social reactions related to better adjustment were being believed and being listened to by others. Victims experiencing negative social reactions reported poorer adjustment even after controlling for other variables known to affect psychological recovery. Avoidance coping mediated the association of negative social reactions with adjustment. The article concludes with a discussion of the implications of these findings for research and treatment of sexual assault survivors.

Topics: Disclosure; treatment