NOTE: These summaries were written by SVPEP and are based on the original papers. The information available on this web site is provided as a public service and does not necessarily reflect the opinion of the U.S. Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, the Arizona Department of Health Services, or the University of Arizona.

Anderson, L., Stoelb, M. P., Duggan, P., Hieger, B., Kling, K. H., & Payne, J. P. (1998). The effectiveness of two types of rape prevention programs in changing the rape-supportive attitudes of college students. Journal of College Student Development, 39, 131-142.

Examined the effectiveness of two rape prevention programs that aimed to change rape-supportive attitudes among college students. As such, 215 undergraduates were assigned to one of three approaches: an interactive "talk show" intervention, a videotaped intervention, or a nontreatment control group. Rape-supportive attitudes were measured utilizing rape myth acceptance and attitudes toward rape scales. Measurements were obtained before the interventions, at posttest (immediately following the intervention), and 7 weeks after the intervention. Results indicate that both interventions reduced rape-supportive attitudes at posttest, but attitudes approached pre-intervention levels by 7 weeks. Implications for future rape prevention interventions are discussed.

Topics: Curriculum; evaluation; prevention

Anderson, L. A., & Whiston, S. C. (2005). Sexual assault education programs: A meta-analytic examination of their effectiveness. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29, 374-388.

The authors conducted an analysis of the effectiveness of sexual assault education programs on college campuses. The study was unique because it examined a wide variety of outcomes and explored the impact of several program factors on program effectiveness. Meta-analyses were conducted with 69 studies and 102 treatment interventions. The results showed that sexual assault programs influenced the most positive change in rape knowledge. The programs had a small, but positive influence on rape attitudes. They had a smaller impact on behavioral intentions, rape-related attitudes, and incidence of sexual assault and no impact on rape empathy and rape awareness behaviors. Several factors were associated with program effectiveness including length of the intervention, type of presenter, program content, type of audience, and gender of audience. Implications for practice and research are presented.

Topics: College; curriculum; evaluation; prevention

Anderson, N. L. R., Uman, G. C., Keenan, C. K., Koniak-Griffin, D., et al. (1996).The process of instrument development for ethnically diverse early adolescents. Journal of Early Adolescence, 16, 427-450.

Describes the development of an evaluation instrument used to assess major content areas in the Reaching Adolescents and Parents (RAP) curriculum – a community-based family education intervention delivered to ethnically diverse communities in Los Angeles County. The authors discuss the challenges associated with creating a valid, reliable, and relevant tool that is audience-appropriate. The wording, format, and question content were structured to be appropriate for ages 10–14 years. The tool was developed using focus groups and pilot-testing.

Topics: Curriculum; evaluation; racial/ethnic differences

Avery-Leaf, S., Cascardi, M., O’Leary, K. D., & Cano, A. (1997). Efficacy of a dating violence prevention program on attitudes justifying aggression. Journal of Adolescent Health, 21, 11-17.

This paper discusses the value of a five-session dating violence prevention curriculum by comparing pre- and posttreatment differences in attitudes concerning dating violence among 193 high school students. Students taking health classes were randomly assigned either to the treatment condition or the control condition. Students in the treatment condition were exposed to a communication skills-based violence prevention program designed to address courtship aggression as a social and psychological issue. The Modified Conflict Tactics scale (MCTS), the Justification of Interpersonal Violence questionnaire (AIV), the Justification of Dating Jealousy and Violence scale (JDV), and the Social Desirability scale (SDS) were administered to all participants. Results revealed that within the treatment group there were significant changes in attitudes concerning dating aggression. Specifically, attitudes concerning justification of male-to-female dating aggression and female-to-male dating aggression were affected in that treatment subjects were less accepting of dating violence during an argument at the postprogram evaluation stage. The authors suggest that more sensitive measures of attitudes concerning dating violence (i.e., AIV and JDV) may be necessary since one-half to two-thirds of the students during the preprogram assessment already felt that physical violence is never justifiable during an argument. Overall, changes in attitudes among participants suggest that this type of curriculum may be a useful tool for prevention of dating aggression.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; curriculum; evaluation; prevention

Avery-Leaf, S., Cascardi, M., O’Leary, K. D., & Cano, A. (1997). Efficacy of a dating violence prevention program on attitudes justifying aggression. Journal of Adolescent Health, 21, 11-17.

This paper discusses the value of a five-session dating violence prevention curriculum by comparing pre- and posttreatment differences in attitudes concerning dating violence among 193 high school students. Students taking health classes were randomly assigned either to the treatment condition or the control condition. Students in the treatment condition were exposed to a communication skills-based violence prevention program designed to address courtship aggression as a social and psychological issue. The Modified Conflict Tactics scale (MCTS), the Justification of Interpersonal Violence questionnaire (AIV), the Justification of Dating Jealousy and Violence scale (JDV), and the Social Desirability scale (SDS) were administered to all participants. Results revealed that within the treatment group there were significant changes in attitudes concerning dating aggression. Specifically, attitudes concerning justification of male-to-female dating aggression and female-to-male dating aggression were affected in that treatment subjects were less accepting of dating violence during an argument at the postprogram evaluation stage. The authors suggest that more sensitive measures of attitudes concerning dating violence (i.e., AIV and JDV) may be necessary since one-half to two-thirds of the students during the preprogram assessment already felt that physical violence is never justifiable during an argument. Overall, changes in attitudes among participants suggest that this type of curriculum may be a useful tool for prevention of dating aggression.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; curriculum; evaluation; prevention

Berkowitz, A. D. (2002). Fostering men's responsibility for preventing sexual assault. In P. A. Schewe (Ed.), Preventing violence in relationships: Interventions across the lifespan (pp. 163-196). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

The author writes that for effective sexual assault prevention men must look at their own potential for violence as well as taking a stand against the violence of other men. He further asserts that men must take responsibility for preventing sexual assault because most sexual violence is perpetrated by men against women, children, and other men. Although only a minority of men are sexually violent, all men are part of the culture/environment that allows other men to perpetrate violence. The chapter offers an overview of issues involved in working with men to encourage taking the responsibility for sexual assault prevention. The chapter also suggests a philosophy for rape prevention programming, provides a model for prevention education programs, reviews promising programs and strategies, and includes recommendations for future program development. The chapter's main focus is on the prevention of sexual assault perpetrated by men or boys in college and high school settings.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; college; curriculum; prevention; male-female relations

Earle, J. P. (1996). Acquaintance rape workshops: Their effectiveness in changing the attitudes of first year college men. National Association of Student Personnel Administrators, 34, 2-18.

This study looks at the effect of three different types of acquaintance rape prevention programs on the attitudes concerning the sexual assault of women among first year college men from four different colleges. The study found that treatment in small, single groups, with peer facilitation and interactive techniques, resulted in the largest positive change in attitude regarding traditional women's roles in the home and workplace and motives for rape. No change was noted in attitudes toward the perceived severity of the crime. This study has implications for the evaluation of current theories of educating first year college men on acquaintance rape.

Topics: College; curriculum; evaluation; prevention

Felty, K. M., Ainslie, J. J., & Geib, A. (1991). Sexual coercion attitudes among high school students: The influence of gender and rape education. Youth and Society, 23, 229-250.

The perception of sexual coercion as justifiable under certain conditions and what variables affect these attitudes is the focus of this study. The sample was drawn from a high school population. Pre- and posttests were administered to students who attended a date rape prevention (DRP) presentation. The student's demographic information was gathered and a questionnaire was given dealing with the subject's sexual activity. This study suggests that date rape prevention programs should include the dynamics of gender socialization, the structured inequality between men and women, and the interrelationship between sex and violence. In addition, such awareness should be developed early in the adolescents' lives.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; curriculum; prevention

Finkelhor, D., Asdigian, N., & Dziuba-Leatherman, J. (1994). The effectiveness of victimization prevention instruction: An evaluation of children's responses to actual threats and assaults. Child Abuse & Neglect, 19, 141-153.

This study examined the effectiveness of school-based prevention instruction in improving children's responses to victimization. Using telephone interviews with 2,000 youths and their caretakers, the authors asked the participants about school-based prevention education programs present at their schools, the content of the programs, parental instruction, specific knowledge about sexual abuse issues, victimization, self-protection strategies, and self-perceived efficacy in dealing with confrontations. Analyses of the interviews revealed that prevention instruction programs judged to be comprehensive had small but positive effects. Youths exposed to these programs were more likely to use self-protection strategies during a confrontation, were more likely to feel successful in doing so, and were more likely to disclose victimization attempts. However, they experienced more injuries during sexual assaults. In contrast, children with more comprehensive parental instruction experienced less injuries during assaults. In addition, comprehensive parental instruction was also associated with positive effects on knowledge, the likelihood of disclosure, and the use of preferred self-protection strategies. The authors conclude by suggesting that not only is parental instruction notably a necessity but that school-based prevention programs may need to reassess the aggressive resistance tactics they teach youths and to focus instead on preventing injuries, not just victimization.

Topics: Curriculum; evaluation; prevention

Fonow, M., Richardson, L., & Wemmerus, V. A. (1992). Feminist rape education: Does it work? Gender & Society, 6, 108-121.

This article begins with an assessment of attitudes and beliefs about rape, specifically as they pertain to college students. It addresses attitudinal factors (i.e., rape myths, rape blame, gender-role conservatism, and adversarial sexual beliefs) and sexism and racism as they culturally support rape myths. The study presented in this article was designed to examine these myths as well as to examine the impact of rape-education intervention strategies on college campuses. Using fourteen classes of Sociology 101 students, the researchers divided 582 students into three treatment conditions. The first was exposed to a live rape-education workshop. The second watched a video of the workshop. The third served as the control group. Results indicated that women were more knowledgeable about rape than men, were less likely to engage in victim-blaming, and were less accepting of adversarial sexual beliefs and gender-role conservatism. Results also revealed that attitudinal changes were apparent in both men and women. In addition, these changes were impacted by a feminist approach to rape education in that students learned that rapes are more likely to take place in a familiar setting, to be perpetrated by someone familiar to the victim, and to serve as a tool of social control over the woman.

Topics: College; curriculum;myths/stereotypes; prevention

Foshee, V., Bauman, K. E., Arriaga, X. B., Helms R. W., Koch, G. G., & Linder, G. F. (1998). An evaluation of Safe Dates, an adolescent dating violence prevention program. American Journal of Public Health, 88, 45-50.

Fourteen public schools in a rural county were randomly assigned to treatment or control conditions. Of the students involved, 1,886 subjects completed pretest and 1,700 subjects completed posttest measures. Members of the treatment group took part in the "Safe Dates" school curriculum and community activities. Those in the control schools were only presented with community activities. At the time of the posttest, those in the treatment schools reported less psychological abuse, less sexual violence, and less violence perpetrated against the current dating partner than those in control schools. Those reporting no dating violence at Time 1 indicated there was less initiation of abuse in treatment than in control schools at Time 2. Those reporting dating violence at Time 1 indicated there was less psychological abuse and sexual violence perpetration occurring in treatment schools post intervention. The problems associated with collecting posttest data directly after an intervention are discussed. The authors indicate that they are in the process of collecting data for a 1-year follow-up to address these limitations.

Topics: Curriculum; evaluation

Foubert, J. D. (2000). The longitudinal effects of a rape-prevention program on fraternity men's attitudes, behavioral intent, and behavior. Journal of American College Health, 48, 158-163.

This study presents the results of 145 fraternity men from a mid-Atlantic university who were randomly selected to determine the results of a victim empathy-based rape prevention program presented by all-male sexual assault prevention peer educators. No evidence of change in sexually coercive behavior was found. Significant declines in rape myth acceptance and the likelihood of committing rape were found with program participants immediately following the intervention. At the 7-month follow-up the decrease in rape myth acceptance remained lower among program participants than within the control group.

Topics: Athletes/fraternities; curriculum; myths/stereotypes; prevention

Foubert, J. D. & Marriott, K. A. (1997). Effects of a sexual assault peer education program on men's belief in rape myths. Sex Roles, 36, 259-268.

This study looks at an all-male sexual assault peer education program that focuses on helping the survivor of sexual assault. The program of focus in this article resulted in a significant decrease in rape myth acceptance among fraternity pledges that persisted over time. The prevention program had the unexpected result of decreasing the likelihood of sexually coercive behaviors in both the experimental and control groups at posttest. The results in this study suggest that attitude changes among program participants may be long-lasting.

Topics: Athletes/fraternities; curriculum; myths/stereotypes; prevention

Foubert, J. D., & McEwen, M. K. (1998). An all-male rape prevention peer education program: Decreasing fraternity men's behavioral intent to rape. Journal of College Student Development, 39, 548-556.

The authors demonstrated that participation in an all-male rape prevention peer education program, intended to decrease fraternity men's behavioral intent to rape, led to significant post-program declines in rape myth acceptance and behavioral intent to rape among 155 fraternity men (88% White, mean age of 19.9 years, mostly sophomores and juniors). The participants were divided into either a pretested and posttested rape prevention program group, a posttested rape prevention program group, or an untreated control group. The authors assessed belief in rape myths using the Burt Rape Myth Acceptance Scale. They evaluated central route processing using a state measure. Finally, intent to rape was evaluated by means of Malamuth's (1981) study questions. Results were the same regardless of whether the subjects were pretested or not. The study supports the hypothesis that rape prevention programming is most effective in an all-male peer education format.

Topics: Athletes/fraternities; curriculum; myths/stereotypes; prevention

Gray, M. D., Lesser, D., Quinn, E., & Bounds, C. (1990). The effectiveness of personalizing acquaintance rape prevention: Programs on perception of vulnerability and on reducing risk-taking behavior. Journal of College Student Development, 31, 217-220.

The authors compared risk avoidance behavioral intention in a study where 44 female community college students received personalized rape prevention program and 26 female controls received a nonpersonalized rape prevention program. Pre- and posttest questionnaire results indicate that personalized prevention programs increased both the perception of personal vulnerability and the intention to reduce risk-taking behaviors.

Topics: Curriculum; evaluation|

Hanson, K. A., & Gidycz, C.A. (1993). Evaluation of a sexual assault prevention program. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 61, 1046-1052.

This article presents the results of a sexual assault prevention program evaluation. Female college students (N = 360) participated in the study; 181 were assigned to the treatment group and 165 were assigned to the control group. The results indicated that the program was effective in decreasing the incidence of sexual assault for women without a sexual assault history but was not effective in decreasing rates of sexual assault for women with sexual assault histories. Those participating in the treatment group reported decreases in dating behaviors found to be associated with acquaintance rape and increases in knowledge about sexual assault. Implications are discussed.

Topics: College; curriculum; evaluation; prevention

Hilton, N. Z., Harris, G. T., Rice, M. E., Krans, T. S., & Lavigne, S. E. (1998). Antiviolence education in high schools: Implementation and evaluation. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 13, 726-742.

This study examined the effects of a knowledge-based intervention administered to 350 eleventh grade students. Variables addressed included a measure of knowledge retained from the intervention, a measure of date rape attitudes, and a measure of self-reported physical and sexual aggression perpetrated by peers. Students chose to attend two 1-hour workshops from six available workshops. Analysis of their responses revealed results that may contribute toward improvements in future school-based prevention education programs. For example, classroom workshops were able to convey the most information. However, attrition of membership at the workshops, especially by students who scored low during the pretest, may account for the higher scores during the posttest phase. As such, the authors suggest that antiviolence education in high schools ought to involve training students to recognize warning signs of violence, provide them with guidance for terminating violent relationships, and aim to improve the selection of high-risk students for treatment.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; curriculum; evaluation; risk

Hollander, J. A. (2005). Challenging despair: Teaching about women’s resistance to violence. Violence Against Women, 11, 776-791.

This paper provides an interesting perspective on how to teach women about resistance to violence by focusing not merely on women’s victimization but rather, by emphasizing the role of resistance – whether verbal, physical, cognitive, or emotional. Hollander presents a discussion of specific readings as well as a discussion of the use of guest speakers and particular course assignments designed to integrate the theme of resistance into a course about violence against women. The purpose of this approach is to teach women about violence by focusing on resistance, thereby reducing fear, vulnerability, and despair that otherwise serve only to disempower women.

Topics: Avoidance/resistance; curriculum; prevention

Holcomb, D. R., Sondag, K. A., & Holcomb, L. C. H. (1993). Healthy dating: A mixed-gender date rape workshop. College Health, 41, 155-157.

This article describes a mixed-gender workshop designed to promote interactive discussion and increase awareness on the issue of date rape. A description of the date rape workshop consensual sex scenario and the recommendations for men and women implemented in the workshop are both included. Participants included 330 men and 314 women of which only 10.2% of the men and 8.2% of the women stated they were uncomfortable discussing date rape in a mixed-gender setting.

Topics: College; curriculum; evaluation

Kershner, R. (1996). Adolescent attitudes about rape. Adolescence, 31, 29-33.

High school students (N = 122) were questioned about their attitudes toward rape in order to develop a rape prevention curriculum. Students revealed conservative attitudes about gender roles, rape myths, and victim issues. The study concluded that by focusing on sociocultural aspects of rape, students can learn to identify what nonconsensual sex looks like, reject common myths about rape and rape victims, and endorse a more egalitarian belief system. It is posited that this, in turn, will lead to a decrease in the incidence of rape.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; curriculum; myths/stereotypes

Kisiel, C., Blaustein, M., Spinazzola, J., Schmidt, C. S., Zucker, M., & van der Kolk, B. (2006). Evaluation of a theater-based youth violence prevention program for elementary school children. Journal of School Violence, 5, 19-36. [Posted August 2007]

Key Points: Children who participated in the program had better pro-social skills, developed fewer new aggressive behaviors, and scored higher on attention and engagement scales than those who did not participate.

Abstract: Four classrooms of fourth-grade students (n=77) participated in Urban Improv (UI), a youth violence prevention program incorporating theater and education. The program consisted of nine weekly sessions, and incorporated experiential learning and discussion. Students in participating classrooms were compared with students in four classrooms that did not participate in UI (controls: n=63).

Students and teachers completed pre- and post-program evaluations. Students completed self-report on measures on their social skills, problem behaviors, coping style, and attitudes and beliefs about aggression. Teachers reported on their students’ demonstration of pro-social skills (cooperation, self-control, and assertiveness) and problem behaviors.

Though student self-reports did not indicate changes between pre- and post-tests, teacher post-program assessments showed significant positive differences between participants and controls. Participants were found to maintain baseline levels of aggression, while controls’ aggressive behavior increased. Pro-social behaviors increased in the participant group and decreased in the control group. Additionally, students who participated in the program showed an improvement in attention/ engagement behaviors, while non-participants showed a decrease in those behaviors.

Topics: Curriculum; prevention

Klaw, E. L., Lonsway, K. A., Berg, D. R., Waldo, C. R., Kothari, C., Mazurek, C. J., & Hegeman, K. E. (2005). Challenging rape culture: Awareness, emotion and action through campus acquaintance rape education. Women & Therapy, 28, 47-63.

The authors conducted a qualitative exploration of college students' experiences with an intensive semester-long rape prevention education course. The Campus Acquaintance Rape Education (CARE) program is based on a feminist perspective, emphasizing the role of gender inequality in sexual violence. Students enrolled in the course are trained to facilitate rape education workshops on campus. The data sources consisted of focus group discussions and reaction papers written by CARE students. Using content analysis, the authors identified three themes related to the effects of the CARE course: 1) increased rape consciousness, 2) emotional reactions to the course material, and 3) increased skills and activism. Unique reactions by men, women, and female survivors were documented. The authors conclude with suggestions for rape education programs and related research.

Topics: College; curriculum; prevention

Lee, D.S., Guy, L., Perry, B., Sniffen, C.K., & Mixson, S.A. (2007). Sexual violence prevention. The Prevention Researcher, 14, 15-20. [Posted August 2007]

Key Points: Because sexual violence is a social problem, ending it requires comprehensive community prevention strategies as well as individual education.

Abstract: The authors reviewed the feminist theoretical basis for sexual violence prevention programs, which states that cultural norms and unequal gender roles lead inevitably to violence against women. They argue that education efforts that address attitudes about gender roles and seek to build relationship skills can be made more effective by incorporating them into comprehensive and community change models.

Several comprehensive programs developed using the Ecological Model and the Spectrum of Prevention model are described. Examples of programs based on community mobilization, changing social norms, and social marketing illustrate community level prevention strategies. The importance of promoting policy changes at local and national levels is emphasized. Finally, the authors call for more funding and research into cultural causes of and responses to sexual violence.

Topics: Prevention; theory

Lonsway, K. A. (1996). Preventing acquaintance rape through education: What do we know? Psychology of Women Quarterly, 20, 229-265.

Reviews current approaches to rape prevention education focusing on methods such as: promoting participant communication, challenging rape myths, providing education on sexuality, and avoiding confrontation. Practical and theoretical issues regarding previous sexual victimization, perpetration, use of outcome measures, program facilitation, and processes underlying change in rape-supportive attitudes are discussed. Research must deal with these issues so that effective rape prevention can become a reality.

Topics: Curriculum; prevention

Lonsway, K. A., Klaw, E. L., Berg, D. R., Waldo, C. R., & Kothari, C. (1998). Beyond “no means no”: Outcomes of an intensive program to train peer facilitators for campus acquaintance rape education. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 13, 73-92.

This study examined the effects of an intensive rape education program. Undergraduate participants enrolled in a semester long university course titled "Campus Acquaintance Rape Education" (CARE) which was designed to train peer facilitators to conduct rape education workshops. This group was compared to students enrolled in a general human sexuality course. Quantitative analysis of pre- and post-course responses suggest that comprehensive attitude change occurred for students in CARE but not for those in the human sexuality course. Follow-up investigations conducted two years after course participation revealed that CARE students were still less accepting of cultural rape myths than those in the human sexuality class. The authors suggest that sex education will be insufficient to prevent rape unless explicit attention is paid to issues of both gender inequality and sexual violence.

Topics: Curriculum; evaluation; prevention

McCaughey, M., & King, N. (1995). Rape education videos: Presenting mean women instead of dangerous men. Teaching Sociology, 23, 374-388.

This paper addresses two methods of rape prevention education that employ videos. The first focuses on "dangerous men" by presenting students with visual examples of male brutality against women in which women are depicted as vulnerable, weak, and overpowered. While disturbing and perhaps capable of inciting awareness of violence against women, they may also contribute toward promoting certain stereotypes concerning male physical strength and female weakness and submission. The second type of video – and the one analyzed in this study – draws upon scenes from movies wherein women are depicted as powerful, armed, and aggressive. Based on students' reactions to this type of video, depictions of aggressive women destabilize men's sense of physical power and replace that confidence with the realization that women have the potential for an alternative response to violence against them.

Topics: Curriculum; male-female relations; prevention

Parrot, A., Cummings, N., Marchell, T. C., & Hofher, J. (1994). A rape awareness and prevention model for male athletes. Journal of American College Health, 42, 179-184.

Sexual assault prevention programs on college campuses tend to focus on changing female rather than male behaviors and are often not effective in preventing acquaintance rape. Educational efforts must be designed to overcome both men's and women's denial of the problem of rape and must inform men about acceptable forms of sexual interaction. This article discusses a proactive, rape prevention program implemented with a university varsity football team. A framework for a rape awareness/prevention program that targets male college athletes is presented. The goals of rape prevention for male athletes must include educating students about the behaviors, risks, and consequences of committing sexual assault. Education programs must also challenge attitudes that demean or objectify women, as well as messages of male domination as normative, which condone and perpetuate rape-prone environments. Rape prevention efforts should address interrelated issues such as relationship expectations, gender roles, power dynamics, communication, and alcohol and other drug use. The authors recommend the development of a sequential series of programs based on a 4-year cycle that introduces fundamental concepts surrounding the issue of sexual assault. Issues of moral development, attitudes, and assumptions – including those toward sexual entitlement – are discussed. A specific format for this program is presented, including engaging techniques for facilitators.

Topics: Athletes; college; curriculum; prevention

Updated 08/01/07