NOTE: These summaries were written by SVPEP staff and are based on the original papers. The information available on this web site is provided as a public service and does not necessarily reflect the opinion of the U.S. Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, the Arizona Department of Health Services, or the University of Arizona.

Abbey, A. (1991). Acquaintance rape and alcohol consumption on college campuses: How are they linked? Journal of American College Health, 39, 165-169.

This article explores the link between acquaintance rape and alcohol consumption among college students. Men's expectancies about alcohol, misperceptions of sexual intent, and justifications of sexual violence are reviewed. Women's abilities to send and receive cues and resist sexual assault are discussed. The article also examines stereotypes about women who drink and how women feel an increased sense of responsibility for being raped based on alcohol consumption. Implications for prevention programming and future research are presented.

Topics: Alcohol; college; male-female relations; myths/stereotypes

Abbey, A., Buck, P. O., Zawacki, T., & Saenz, C. (2003). Alcohol’s effects on perceptions of a potential date rape. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 64, 669-677.

The current study investigates the role of alcohol on both male and female participants’ perceptions of a potential rape situation. The participants in this study were 90 men and 90 women recruited from an urban commuter university. The participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups: (a) a treatment group administered alcohol, (b) a placebo group administered an alternate beverage, and (c) a control group knowingly administered a nonalcoholic beverage. Participants were then given a story to read that described a scenario that might have resulted in rape. Participants in each group were asked how they felt about the behavior exhibited and to finish the script according to what they thought would happen next in the given scenario. Participants also completed measures related to alcohol expectancies, attitudes about sex, and frequency of alcohol consumption. Results indicate that participants who reported drinking alcohol more frequently tended to have positive attitudes about casual sex and to report that the aggressive behavior of the man in the story was not inappropriate. Furthermore, alcohol consumption and gender differences were not associated with the expectancy that the experimental story would result in forced sex. The results of this study show the need for education about situational characteristics that can potentially lead to sexual assault.

Topics: Alcohol; college; myths/stereotypes

Abbey, A., Clinton-Sherrod, M., McAuslan, P., & Buck, O. (2003). The relation between the quantity of alcohol consumed and the severity of sexual assaults committed by college men. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 18, 813-833.

Recent research suggests that alcohol consumption increases sexual behavior and aggressiveness in men. The current study aims to further investigate the role of alcohol in sexual assault. The authors hypothesized a curvilinear relationship between: (a) the amount of alcohol consumed and the aggressive behavior of sexual perpetrators and (b) the amount of alcohol consumed by the victim and the level of resistance. The participants in this study were 132 college women (mean age of 23 years) who had experienced either a completed or attempted rape. Results showed that aggressive behaviors exhibited by perpetrators were elevated when the perpetrators were sober or when high levels of alcohol had been consumed. The more alcohol consumed by the victims, the lower their level of resistance. Findings also suggest that the victims of completed rapes consume higher amounts of alcohol than victims of attempted rape. Results indicate the need to educate college students about the possible effects of alcohol; namely, how alcohol can negatively influence sexual and aggressive behavior. For example, men need to be better educated about the role that alcohol can play in diminishing a woman’s ability to give consent and the probable ramifications thereof in terms of the legal definition of rape. Limitations of this study include potential inaccuracies in the measurement of alcohol consumption and impairment levels.

Topics: Alcohol; avoidance/resistance; college

Abbey, A., & Harnish, R. J. (1995). Perception of sexual intent: The role of gender, alcohol consumption, and rape supportive attitudes. Sex Roles, 32, 297-313.

This study examined the effects of participant's gender, rape supportive attitudes, and target's alcohol consumption on participant's perceptions of target's sexual intent. Men were found to perceive female targets’ behavior as more sexual than the women perceived them to be. This was especially true of men high in rape myth acceptance. Male and female targets' alcohol consumption interacted, such that when both individuals were drinking alcohol they were perceived as being most sexual and their drinking was viewed as most appropriate. The rape myth acceptance and alcohol findings are discussed in terms of their implications for sexual assault and substance abuse prevention programming.

Topics: Alcohol; college; myths/stereotypes

Abbey, A., McAuslan, P., Ross, L., & Zawacki, T. (1999). Alcohol expectancies regarding sex, aggression, and sexual vulnerability: Reliability and validity assessment. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 13, 174-182.

This article reviews the findings of a study on 715 college students who completed the Alcohol Expectancies Regarding Sex, Aggression, and Sexual Vulnerability Questionnaire. The instrument contains questions on alcohol expectancies in four areas (aggression, sexual affect, sexual drive, and vulnerability to sexual coercion) for three groups (self, women, and men). Statistical analysis supported the hypothesis that participants' alcohol expectancies for other people corresponded with their gender role stereotypes. Participants also believed that they were less influenced by alcohol than other people were. The authors discuss the implications of their research for sexual assault prevention programs.

Topics: Alcohol; college; risk; vulnerability

Abbey, A., McAuslan, P., Zawacki, T., Clinton, A. M., & Buck, P. (2001). Attitudinal, experiential, and situational predictors of sexual assault perpetration. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 16, 784-807.

This study examines individual differences and situational factors involved in sexual assault by comparing descriptions of worst dates to descriptions of sexual assaults. Males (N = 343) were recruited at a large, urban university and asked to complete a questionnaire. Several self-report measures were included to assess: social desirability, gender role attitudes, alcohol-related attitudes, consensual sexual experiences history, previous experiences with misperception, peer support for nonconsensual sex, perpetration of sexual assault, characteristics of the sexual assault or worst date with a woman (i.e., the latter, if no sexual assault was reported), and characteristics of the sexual assault (including attributions of responsibility and outcomes). Results indicated that 33% of the sample had committed some type of sexual assault, of which 8% met the legal requirements to constitute an act of attempted or completed rape. Discriminant function analysis revealed that several variables differentiated perpetrators from nonperpetrators. These were: attitudes about gender roles and alcohol (i.e., hostile gender role beliefs, alcohol and sexual expectancies, approval for use of verbal pressure), past consensual sexual experience (i.e., number of previous partners), and characteristics of the situation (i.e., degree of familiarity, degree of isolation, role of alcohol during the interaction, duration of misperception, and prior consensual activity between the man and the woman involved). Additional analyses demonstrated that forced contacts, sexual coercions, and rapes could be differentiated along the following predictors: tactics used by perpetrators (i.e., verbal pressure, physical force, or alcohol/drugs), self-attributions related to the assault (i.e., regarding their behavior, alcohol consumption, and role of peer pressure), and outcomes (i.e., perception of seriousness and effect on the relationship between the man and the woman). The results of this study underscore the need to examine individual as well as situational variables that may differentiate between types of perpetrators and types of sexual assaults. In turn, such knowledge would enhance prevention activities.

Topics: Alcohol; college; male-female relations; perpetration

Anderson, L. A., & Whiston, S. C. (2005). Sexual assault education programs: A meta-analytic examination of their effectiveness. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29, 374-388.

The authors conducted an analysis of the effectiveness of sexual assault education programs on college campuses. The study was unique because it examined a wide variety of outcomes and explored the impact of several program factors on program effectiveness. Meta-analyses were conducted with 69 studies and 102 treatment interventions. The results showed that sexual assault programs influenced the most positive change in rape knowledge. The programs had a small, but positive influence on rape attitudes. They had a smaller impact on behavioral intentions, rape-related attitudes, and incidence of sexual assault and no impact on rape empathy and rape awareness behaviors. Several factors were associated with program effectiveness including length of the intervention, type of presenter, program content, type of audience, and gender of audience. Implications for practice and research are presented.

Topics: College; curriculum; evaluation; prevention

Arata, C. M., & Burkhart, B. R. (1998). Coping appraisals and adjustment to nonstranger sexual assault. Violence Against Women, 4, 224-239.

In this study, 813 female undergraduate psychology students filled out questionnaires regarding past coercive sexual experiences in order to assess the relationship between appraisals, coping, and adjustment of nonstranger sexual assault. Symptomatic victims of sexual assault were compared to asymptomatic victims. Participants who were currently symptomatic were more likely to engage in characterological self-blame and were more likely to use coping strategies such as emotional expressiveness/social support seeking and coping activity/cognitive restructuring. Victims of rape are more likely to use characterological self-blame than are victims of other forms of sexual assault. Overall, the study showed an impact of coping and attribution on a general measure of functioning.

Topics: College; effects; survivors

Banyard, V. L., Plante, E. G., Cohn, E. S., Moorhead, C., Ward, S., & Walsh, W. (2005). Revisiting unwanted sexual experiences on campus: A 12-year follow-up. Violence Against Women, 11, 426-446.

The authors conducted an exploratory study in 1988 of unwanted sexual experiences on campus. Consequently, this article is a follow-up to that study. Although 524 women completed the 1988 survey, information concerning male victimization was insufficient from that study to be compared against the responses from 231 men and 417 women who completed the 2000 questionnaire. As such, only surveys from female respondents were used in the analysis. The survey included questions addressing unwanted sexual experiences, characteristics of the experiences, and disclosure. Results yielded a significant difference between 1988 and 2000 concerning prevalence of victimization (i.e., a drop in victimization rates of 37% in 1988 to 20.9% in 2000) and a significant decrease in unwanted sexual contact. Reported rates of unwanted sexual intercourse, on the other hand, remained constant across study years. Implications for prevention programs directed at campus communities are discussed.

Topics: College; male-female relations; prevalence

Belknap, J., Fisher, B. S., & Cullen, F. T. (1999). The development of a comprehensive measure of the sexual victimization of college women. Violence Against Women, 5, 185-214.

These authors indicate that sexual victimization has only recently been identified as an important problem on college and university campuses. They point out that researchers have used a number of different methodologies and sources of data to describe the extent and scope of sexual victimization of college women. The authors state that these studies are often flawed by an abbreviated conceptualization of sexual victimization (one that omits sexual stalking and harassment) and by the failure to distinguish between the different ranges of both more and less serious sexual victimizations. This article also presents a measure of sexual victimization that includes incident reports.

Topics: College; harassment; prevalence; stalking

Benson, D., Charlton, C., & Goodhart, F. (1992). Acquaintance rape on campus: A literature review. College Health, 40, 157-165.

This article provides an overview of several central aspects relevant to acquaintance or date rape on American college campuses. It addresses the definition of acquaintance rape, early research on the topic, the cultural context of rape, legal issues concerning acquaintance rape as a crime and as a campus disciplinary matter, adolescent attitudes and sexual socialization, the relationship between alcohol and sexual assault, characteristics of assailants, vulnerability factors among women, survivor responses, and institutional responses of colleges. The authors conclude by proposing several strategies that colleges can follow to increase awareness and prevention of acquaintance rape on campuses.

Topics: Alcohol; college; prevention; survivors; vulnerability

Berg, D. R., Lonsway, K. A., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (1999). Rape prevention education for men: The effectiveness of empathy-induction techniques. Journal of College Student Development, 40, 219-234.

This article reports the results of a study in which 54 male undergraduates (mean age of 19.2 years) participated in a rape prevention education program that consisted of listening to an audiotape of a man or woman describing their experience of being raped. After two weeks, the male students who listened to the female tape reported an increased likelihood to engage in rape-supportive behaviors and no difference in empathy or rape-supportive attitudes. The authors caution that it is important to use care if attempting to implement this type of intervention.

Topics: College; prevention; perpetration

Berkowitz, A. (1992). College men as perpetrators of acquaintance rape and sexual assault: A review of recent research. Journal of American College Health, 40, 175-181.

This article proposes an integrated theory of sexual assault and provides a review of literature on the perpetration of acquaintance rape and sexual assault by college men. Topics covered include: (a) how rape is defined, (b) the incidence of acquaintance rape and sexual assault, (c) characteristics of perpetrators, (d) situational correlates of sexual assault, and (e) men's misperception of women's sexual intent. The need to develop effective rape-prevention programs for men is discussed.

Topics: College; male-female relations; perpetration

Berkowitz, A. D. (2002). Fostering men's responsibility for preventing sexual assault. In P. A. Schewe (Ed.), Preventing violence in relationships: Interventions across the lifespan (pp. 163-196). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

The author writes that for effective sexual assault prevention men must look at their own potential for violence as well as taking a stand against the violence of other men. He further asserts that men must take responsibility for preventing sexual assault because most sexual violence is perpetrated by men against women, children, and other men. Although only a minority of men are sexually violent, all men are part of the culture/environment that allows other men to perpetrate violence. The chapter offers an overview of issues involved in working with men to encourage taking the responsibility for sexual assault prevention. The chapter also suggests a philosophy for rape prevention programming, provides a model for prevention education programs, reviews promising programs and strategies, and includes recommendations for future program development. The chapter's main focus is on the prevention of sexual assault perpetrated by men or boys in college and high school settings.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; college; curriculum; prevention; male-female relations

Bondurant, B. (2001). University women's acknowledgment of rape: Individual, situational, and social factors. Violence Against Women, 7, 294-314.

The authors examine individual, situational, and social predictors of university women's admission of rape experiences. Results indicate that only individual and situational factors uniquely predicted acknowledgment. Women tend to acknowledge a rape if they experienced higher levels of violence during the rape, possessed factors congruent with the acquaintance of a rape script, and blamed their behavior for the rape. All women tended to blame the perpetrator more than themselves. Implications for rape awareness programs are discussed.

Topics: College; disclosure

Breitenbecher, K. H., & Scarce, M. (2001). An evaluation of the effectiveness of a sexual assault education program focusing on psychological barriers to resistance. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 16, 387-407.

While sexual assault education programs are becoming more pervasive across college campuses, research demonstrates that they are not always effective in altering outcome variables of interest in rape prevention. That is, most evaluations of rape prevention education programs focus on satisfaction, judgments of responsibility elicited from vignettes, and changes in behavioral intention or rape-supportive attitudes despite the reality that there is no data to support the assumption that changes in these outcome variables will lead to decreases in the incidence of rape. In 1999, the authors reported on a rape prevention education program that showed a post-intervention decrease in the incidence of rape, but only for those participants who did not have a history of victimization. Based on the findings of previous studies, the researchers hypothesized that the current program would not, in fact, have an effect on the incidence of sexual assault. For example, this study involved 117 female students who were recruited from a large, Midwestern university area. Participants were randomly assigned to either the control condition (n = 50) or the treatment condition (n = 67) whereby the women in the latter condition took part in a 90-minute sexual assault risk-reduction program focusing on psychological barriers to resistance while the women in the former group were not exposed to such training. The initial session required participants to complete several measures, including: a demographic survey, screening for previous prevention training, the Child Sexual Abuse Questionnaire (CSAQ), the Sexual Experiences Survey (SES), the Dating Behavior Survey (DBS), the Sexual Communication Survey (SCS), the Risk Perception Survey (RPS), the Sexual Assault Knowledge Survey (SAKS), and supplementary questions concerning self-blame, disclosure, reporting of an assault to law enforcement, and use of crisis centers. After a 7-month follow-up period, participants returned for another session of responding to the measures (except the CSAQ) used in the initial session. Analyses revealed that women with previous histories of sexual victimization were more likely to have experienced some degree of sexual victimization during the 7-month follow-up period than were participants who had reported no sexual victimization histories. No significant differences between conditions were otherwise reported. The authors conclude by discussing some of the implications and limitations of their current study as well as previous ones. For example, one limitation involves the potentially inadequate length of most education programs (e.g., 60 minutes). That is, in order to implement any meaningful changes in cognitions and behaviors, treatment may have to be of longer duration. Most importantly, they suggest that rape prevention must focus on the cognitions and behaviors of men who may be potential sexual offenders since educating potential victims is only half of the story in any case.

Topics: College; evaluation; prevention

Buddie, A. M., & Testa, M. (2005). Rates and predictors of sexual aggression among students and nonstudents. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20, 713-724.

This study focused on determining to what extent the college environment and college living arrangements of female students may impact their risk of experiencing sexual victimization. Measures addressed living arrangements, sexual aggression, predictors of sexual aggression (i.e., alcohol consumption, drug use, and number of sexual partners in the last year), and demographic information (e.g., household income and education level). Contrary to the expectation that college students are at higher risk of sexual aggression, analyses showed that women living away from their parents were more at risk, whether student or nonstudent. Additionally, alcohol consumption and multiple sex partners during the last year were significantly associated with rape and/or attempted rape during the past year. The authors highlight the need for prevention programs to recognize that college has been overly emphasized as a risky environment and that, instead, research should focus on the risky behaviors of students and nonstudents alike.

Topics: Alcohol; college; risk

Corbin, W. R., Bernat, J. A., Calhoun, K. S., McNair, L. D., & Seals, K. L. (2001). The role of alcohol expectancies and alcohol consumption among sexually victimized and nonvictimized college women. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 16, 297-311.

Research has revealed that college women are three times more likely than other groups of similar aged women to be victims of sexual assault. Much research has been done on the factors contributing to sexual assault perpetration and victimization. This study examines the role of alcohol expectancies, alcohol consumption, sexual assertiveness, and the number of consensual sexual partners in sexual assault victimization. The participants in this study were 238 female undergraduate students who were divided into three groups according to their personal experiences with sexual assault victimization: nonvictimized, moderately victimized, and severely victimized. Results showed that severely victimized women had more consensual sexual partners, less assertive behavior toward unwanted sexual advances, greater alcohol consumption, and more positive alcohol expectancies than those women in the nonvictimization group. Results also revealed that women who consume alcohol and have high positive expectancies as a result of alcohol consumption may face an elevated risk for sexual assault victimization. As such, this study identifies an important link between alcohol consumption and sexual assault victimization. Additional research should incorporate the role of risk perception in order to fully understand the link between alcohol expectancies and sexual behavior.

Topics: Alcohol; college; risk

Cortina, L. M., Swan, S. Fitzgerald, L. F., & Waldo, C. (1998). Sexual harassment and assault: Chilling the climate for women in academia. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 22, 419-441.

This article documents the widespread and harmful extent of sexual harassment and sexual assault on college campuses. The authors report that few studies have investigated the impact of harassment and assault in academia. For this study, 1,037 female undergraduate and graduate students were surveyed regarding their experiences with sexual harassment and assault and how victimization affected their scholarship. The extent and impact of double victimization was also investigated. Issues of sexual orientation and race/ethnicity are examined, with membership in different groups affecting victimization incidence.

Topics: College; harassment; racial/ethnic differences

Cotton, A., & Farley, M. (2003). Attitudes toward prostitution and acceptance of rape myths. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 32, 1791-1797.

The authors of this study recognize that certain culturally supported attitudes are related to the prevalence of sexual assault. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the association between prostitution myth and rape myth acceptance in a sample of 783 undergraduate males and females. Participants were asked to respond to a scalar survey eliciting responses about the level of agreement with typical prostitution justification attitudes. The six items on the survey were: (a) “there is nothing wrong with prostitution,” (b) “prostitutes are victims of pimps,” (c) “most prostitutes make a lot of money,” (d) “women are prostitutes because they want to be; it’s their choice, (e) “prostitutes enjoy their work,” and (f) “prostitutes genuinely like men.” The results indicated a correlation between prostitution myth acceptance and rape myth acceptance. Male students were more likely to subscribe to prostitution myths than female students.

Topics: College; myths/stereotypes; underserved populations

Davis, J. L., Combs-Lane, A. M., & Jackson, T. L. (2002). Risky behaviors associated with interpersonal victimization: Comparisons based on type, number, and characteristics of assault incidents. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 17, 611-629.

Previous research has indicated that a history of sexual victimization increases the probability of risky behaviors, particularly in the areas of substance use and sexual risk taking. The focus of this study is the degree to which particular characteristics of such victimization (e.g., type of association with the perpetrator, number of perpetrators, type of assault, and number of occurrences) affect substance use and sexual risk-taking behaviors in undergraduate women. Participants (N = 310) were mostly freshmen and sophomores who were recruited from four sororities located in a Southern public university. The questionnaires used included: Experiences With Violence Survey, Risky Behavior Summary Score (RBSS), and questions about alcohol consumption within the last 30 days. Although the students were participating in a sexual assault education and prevention program, the results of this study are based only on the pre-intervention baseline scores and do not include the reassessment questionnaires that followed the prevention program. As such, analyses revealed that women who had experienced multiple sexual assaults scored highest on the RBSS and demonstrated more alcohol consumption than the single-assault group. In turn, the latter reported more risk-taking behaviors than the nonvictimized group. The same comparative trend was evident for the variable concerning physical assault. The combination of both sexual and physical types of assault were related to the presence of more risky behaviors and greater alcohol consumption. Analyses of type and number of assaults showed that younger age, the type of sexual assault (whether single, including physical assault, or multiple incidences), the experience of sexual assault during childhood and adulthood, and assault by an acquaintance were also most likely to be linked with risk-taking behaviors. Interpersonal victimization across the lifespan (i.e., regardless of the developmental period in which it occurs) has long-term, adverse effects on the psychological and physical health of its victims. This study highlights the role that sexual and physical assault play in leading to increased risk-taking behaviors among victims and concludes by discussing some of the possible reasons for why this association occurs.

Topics: Alcohol; college; effects

DeKeseredy, W. S., Schwartz, M. D., & Alvi, S. (2000). The role of profeminist men in dealing with woman abuse on the Canadian college campus. Violence Against Women, 6, 918-935.

The author asserts that the attempts to stop woman abuse on North American college campuses has not been very successful thus far. Students, faculty, and administrators often support the patriarchal rights of men or think that the problem is not so widespread. Programs on many campuses do not work well, in part because they depend on women to prevent rape and also because most offenders know that few men come under formal social control and that that they can probably get away with their actions (i.e., rape with impunity). The author draws from empirical research that suggests male peer support is the most important factor determining pro-rape attitudes and behaviors. The authors suggest ways in which pro-feminist men can begin to work on the problem of male aggression including: protesting pornography, working with bullies or those who are abusive, shaming, and involving themselves with education programs and/or support groups.

Topics: College; prevention

Donat, P., & Bondurant, B. (2003). The role of sexual victimization in women's perceptions of others' sexual interest. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 18, 50-64.

The purpose of this study was to further understand the relationship between women’s sexual victimization experiences and their perceptions of sexual interest. In this experiment, 329 undergraduate women rated mundane dating behaviors, romantic behaviors, and sexual behaviors exhibited by both male and female actors according to their perceptions of the actor’s sexual interest. The women were divided into four groups according to their personal sexual experiences. In general, the women rated the male actor as portraying more sexual interest than the female when the actors exhibited the same type of behavior. Also, the group of women who had been sexually victimized through the use of force or threat of force rated the male actor’s behavior as portraying more sexual interest than the ratings of the group of women who had not been sexually victimized.

Topics: Alcohol; college; effects

Douglas, K. A., Collins, J. L., Warren, C., Kann, L., Gold, R., Clayton, S, Ross, J. G., & Kolbe, L. J. (1997). Results from the 1995 National College Health Risk Behavior Survey. College Health, 46, 55-66.

The National College Health Risk Behavior Survey used a nationally representative sample of undergraduate college students aged 18 years or older to answer a questionnaire on their health risk behaviors. The results of this study indicate that college students engage in behaviors that put them at greater risk for adverse health consequences. Tobacco use, alcohol and other drug use, sexual behaviors, dietary behaviors and physical activity were the focus of this study. Certain behaviors are more notable because of the large numbers of students affected by them. Subgroups were examined to assess risk behaviors among them.

Topics: Alcohol; college; risk

Earle, J. P. (1996). Acquaintance rape workshops: Their effectiveness in changing the attitudes of first year college men. National Association of Student Personnel Administrators, 34, 2-18.

This study looks at the effect of three different types of acquaintance rape prevention programs on the attitudes concerning the sexual assault of women among first year college men from four different colleges. The study found that treatment in small, single groups, with peer facilitation and interactive techniques, resulted in the largest positive change in attitude regarding traditional women's roles in the home and workplace and motives for rape. No change was noted in attitudes toward the perceived severity of the crime. This study has implications for the evaluation of current theories of educating first year college men on acquaintance rape.

Topics: College; evaluation; prevention

Fisher, B. S., Cullen, F. T., & Turner, M. G. (2002). Being pursued: Stalking victimization in a national study of college women. Criminology & Public Policy, 1, 257-308.

In a review of research on the victimization of women, the authors state that stalking has received little attention despite passage of extensive state and federal anti-stalking laws in the last 12 years. This study fills the research gap on stalking among college women as an at-risk population. The authors conducted a telephone survey drawing upon a nationally representative sample of women (N = 4,446) attending two and four year colleges and universities. Detailed questions were asked regarding stalking victimization (i.e., form, duration, intensity, location, injuries, reactions, and reporting) and victim-offender relationship. As a theoretical basis, the authors used lifestyle routine activity theory, which suggests that four particular lifestyles or routines (i.e., proximity to motivated offenders, exposure to crime, target attractiveness, and lack of guardianship) may put individuals at greater risk of victimization than those who do not engage in such activities or lifestyles. The relationship of demographic and lifestyle variables to stalking victimization was then examined within a multivariate statistical model. Results indicated that 13.1% of college women had been stalked once since the academic year began, 12.7% had been stalked twice, and 2.3% had been stalked three or more times. The median duration for a stalking incident was two months with 41% experiencing pursuit behaviors 2 to 6 times/week and another 13.3% experiencing them daily. Four in five victims knew their stalker; namely, 42.9% were current boyfriends or ex-boyfriends, 29% were classmates, and 10.4% were acquaintances. Substantial support was found for the routine activity theory. Propensity to be at places with alcohol, being in a relationship or dating, living alone, undergraduate status, higher SES class, prior sexual victimization, and being Non-Hispanic/Latina, Native American, or "Other," were significantly associated with stalking victimization. Given the high prevalence of stalking, the authors suggested college administrations should take a proactive approach to protecting female students.

Topics: College; risk; stalking

Fisher, B. S., Daigle, L. E., Cullen, F. T., & Turner, M. G. (2003). Reporting sexual victimization to others: Results from a national level study of college women. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 30, 6-38.

Previous research demonstrates that sexual assault and rape are the most underreported violent crimes. Additionally, research has also documented that college women are especially at risk for sexual victimization. This study reviews some of the factors that contribute to the level of nonreporting associated with such crimes as well as factors that seem to increase the chances that a victim will report. Factors reviewed include the impact of self-blame, the seriousness of the incidents, type of victim-offender relationships, certain victim characteristics (e.g., age, income level, education level, race, etc.), and the contextual characteristics of the crimes (e.g., the role of substance abuse). Drawing upon a sample of female undergraduates from the National College Women Sexual Victimization study, the authors examined the effects of incident, offender, victim and contextual characteristics on the likelihood of disclosure. Results indicate that the majority of incidents are not reported to law enforcement andhen a weapon was used, and/or the incident occurred on campus. Victims were less likely to report an incident of sexual assault to police and/or authorities when alcohol and/or drugs were involved and more likely to tell someone else. Additional results are reviewed, along with implications for future research. Conservative and feminist views on the reasons behind underreporting are also discussed.

Topics: College; disclosure; risk

Fisher, B. S., Sloan, J. J., Cullen, F. T., & Lu, C. (1998). Crime in the ivory tower: The level and sources of student victimization. Criminology, 36, 671-710.

Using telephone interviews designed after the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), the authors collected data on criminal victimizations experienced by college students at twelve institutions on and off campus during the 1993–94 academic year. Drawing upon the lifestyle-routine activities approach, the authors collected information concerning student demographics, proximity to crime, exposure to crime, target attractiveness, and lack of capable guardianship. Results indicate that risk of property victimization was enhanced by proximity to crime, target attractiveness, exposure, and lack of guardianship. The recreational use of drugs and high levels of partying at night on campus were the most significant predictors of violent victimization. The authors conclude by suggesting that crime prevention strategies should be informed by such research and could prove useful in reducing crime experienced by college students.

Topics: College; risk; prevention; vulnerability

Follingstad, D. R., Bradley, R. G., Laughlin, J. E., & Burke, L. (1999). Risk factors and correlates of dating violence: The relevance of examining frequency and severity levels in a college sample. Violence & Victims, 14, 365-380.

The author examines risk factors for dating violence using self-reported methods. In all, 327 female and 290 male 1st-year college students were questioned about their exposure to violence. Students completed 12 measures that asked questions about coping skills, dating violence, and the use and perceived effectiveness of violence and control in interpersonal relationships. Results indicate that students that self-reported dating violence attributed it primarily to efforts to control the actions of their dating partner. Stress and communication issues played a large part, as did jealousy and difficulty dealing with anger. Men who reported committing dating violence tended to have more alcohol problems. The researchers indicate that there were no major differences in negative evaluation apprehension, self-esteem, or problem-solving skills between nonviolent and violent groups.

Topics: College; male-female relations; perpetration; risk

Fonow, M., Richardson, L., & Wemmerus, V. A. (1992). Feminist rape education: Does it work? Gender & Society, 6, 108-121.

This article begins with an assessment of attitudes and beliefs about rape, specifically as they pertain to college students. It addresses attitudinal factors (i.e., rape myths, rape blame, gender-role conservatism, and adversarial sexual beliefs) and sexism and racism as they culturally support rape myths. The study presented in this article was designed to examine these myths as well as to examine the impact of rape-education intervention strategies on college campuses. Using fourteen classes of Sociology 101 students, the researchers divided 582 students into three treatment conditions. The first was exposed to a live rape-education workshop. The second watched a video of the workshop. The third served as the control group. Results indicated that women were more knowledgeable about rape than men, were less likely to engage in victim-blaming, and were less accepting of adversarial sexual beliefs and gender-role conservatism. Results also revealed that attitudinal changes were apparent in both men and women. In addition, these changes were impacted by a feminist approach to rape education in that students learned that rapes are more likely to take place in a familiar setting, to be perpetrated by someone familiar to the victim, and to serve as a tool of social control over the woman.

Topics: College; curriculum; myths/stereotypes; prevention

Gidycz, C., Rich, C., Orchowski, L., King, C., & Miller, A. (2006). The evaluation of a sexual assault self-defense and risk-reduction program for college women: A prospective study. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30, 173-186. [Posted October 2006.]

Key Points: College women who participated in a sexual assault risk-reduction program were more likely to practice protective behaviors than women who did not participate. Neither program participation nor practicing protective behaviors made a difference in rates of sexual victimization over a 6-month follow-up period.

Abstract: Researchers examined changes in protective behaviors, sexual communication, and self-efficacy among college women participating in a sexual assault avoidance program (n=234) compared with a control group (n=266). The seven-hour skills-building program included lecture, video, group discussion, role play, and physical self-defense techniques. Three months later, a 1-½ hour “booster” session was given. Only self-protective behaviors increased over time more among program participants compared with the control group. About the same number of women in both groups reported experiencing moderate or severe victimization during the follow-up period. Among those who were victimized, program participants were more likely to blame the perpetrator. Researchers found that the only factor associated with being victimized during the follow-up period was a history of adolescent victimization.

Limits of the study include the small sample size. Program participants may have identified a broader range of experiences as sexual victimization than non-participants.

Topics: Avoidance/resistance; college; evaluation

Gray, N. B., Palileo, G. J., & Johnson, G. D. (1993). Explaining rape victim blame: A test of attribution theory. Sociological Spectrum, 13, 377-392.

This study explored rape victim blaming attitudes among 1,177 college students by drawing upon two competing hypotheses within attribution theory; namely, “defensive attribution” and “need for control.” Students answered survey questionnaires measuring rape myths, previous sexual victimization, previous sexual aggression, risk taking behaviors, and additional questions concerning demographics and knowledge of rape prevention. The findings indicate that gender is the most significant predictor of rape victim blaming with females less likely to blame rape victims. Furthermore, risk taking and rape victim blaming were negatively associated among females whereas among males, previous sexual aggression and risk taking were more likely to be associated with victim blaming. In contrast, males with previous nonsexual victimization experience, males of higher class standing, and males who had prior exposure to rape prevention knowledge were less likely to engage in victim blaming. Foreign students and nonwhite students were most accepting of rape myths. Implications for rape prevention are proposed.

Topics: College; myths/stereotypes; racial/ethnic differences; risk

Gross, A. M., Winslett, A., Roberts, M., & Gohm, C. L. (2006). An examination of sexual violence against college women. Violence Against Women, 12, 288-300.

The purpose of the study was to examine the incidence and correlates of different forms of sexual victimization among a sample of college women. The sample consisted of 935 undergraduate female students who were recruited from introductory psychology classes and on-campus sororities. A questionnaire was administered to participants in small groups. The results showed that 27% of the women had experienced unwanted sexual contact since enrolling in college. Thirty-seven percent of the sample reported multiple forced sexual experiences. African-American women reported higher rates of sexual victimization compared to White women. Survivors and perpetrators reported high rates of alcohol consumption during the time of the sexual experience. Boyfriends were the most common perpetrator of sexual aggression. Implications for prevention efforts are discussed.

Topics: College; prevalence; risk

Hanley, M. J., & O'Neill, P. (1997). Violence and commitment: A study of dating couples. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 12, 685-703.

The authors administered the Conflict Tactics Scale and measures of emotional commitment to dating couples who were college students. Members of a couple were independently tested, so that they could not influence each others' response choices. Participants reported both committing and receiving acts of violence and verbal aggression. They also assessed both their own level of commitment and their perception of the commitment level of their partners. Overall, it became possible to examine three possible similarities: between the partners, between self-rating and perception of partner, and between rating of the partner and the partner's self-report. At least one member reported violence in one-third of couples, but prevalence dropped below 20% when taking into account both members' responses. There was little agreement about who did what to whom. Violent couples reported greater commitment to the relationship and were also more likely to disagree with each other's level of emotional commitment.

Topics: College; male-female relations; prevalence

Hanson, K. A., & Gidycz, C.A. (1993). Evaluation of a sexual assault prevention program. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 61, 1046-1052.

This article presents the results of a sexual assault prevention program evaluation. Female college students (N = 360) participated in the study; 181 were assigned to the treatment group and 165 were assigned to the control group. The results indicated that the program was effective in decreasing the incidence of sexual assault for women without a sexual assault history but was not effective in decreasing rates of sexual assault for women with sexual assault histories. Those participating in the treatment group reported decreases in dating behaviors found to be associated with acquaintance rape and increases in knowledge about sexual assault. Implications are discussed.

Topics: College; curriculum; evaluation; prevention

Hickman, S. E., & Muehlenhard, C. L. (1997). College women's fears and precautionary behaviors relating to acquaintance rape and stranger rape. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 527-547.

In the past, research on women's fear of rape has focused primarily on women's fears relating to stranger rape, even though acquaintance rapes are far more common. The authors administered questionnaire surveys to 139 undergraduate women concerning their fears, precautionary behaviors, and beliefs related to acquaintance and stranger rape. Respondents reported being more fearful of rape by strangers than by acquaintances, and reported engaging in more precautionary behaviors because of fear of stranger rape than of acquaintance rape. When asked to describe situations in which they feared rape, they more often described scenarios of stranger rape, even though they correctly estimated acquaintance rape to be more common. Level of fear was the best predictor of the presence of precautionary behaviors. A history of acquaintance rape had no effect on women's responses.

Topics: Avoidance/resistance; college; vulnerability

Himelein, M. J. (1999). Acquaintance rape prevention with high-risk women: Identification and inoculation. Journal of College Student Development, 40, 93-96.

A small, short-term intervention involving undergraduate women was conducted in two steps: identifying women at risk and then attempting to "inoculate" them against acquaintance rape. Six different risk characteristics were used to identify high risk women. The group consisted of five 90-minute meetings conducted weekly in the campus counseling center. The women reported a high degree of satisfaction, considerable learning, and the belief that they had learned a great deal of relevant and worthwhile information. A follow-up questionnaire indicated that knowledge about sexual assault had increased.

Topics: College; prevention; risk

Holcomb, D. R., Sarvela, P. D., Sondag, K. A., & Holcomb, L. H. (1993). An evaluation of a mixed-gender date rape prevention workshop. Journal of American College Health, 41, 159-164.

The authors used a randomized, posttest-only experimental design (the 25-item Date Rape Attitudes Survey) to compare the date-rape (DRP) attitudes of 163 university students exposed to a mixed-gender DRP workshop with the DRP attitudes of 168 students who were not exposed. Three hypotheses were tested with the following results: (1) men reported attitudes that were more tolerant of DRP than those of women (i.e., the men were more likely to condone DRP); (2) subjects in the control group reported attitudes that were more tolerant of DRP than those reported by subjects in the treatment group; and (3) men exhibited a greater effect from the program than did the women.

Topics: College; evaluation; prevention

Kahn, A. S., Jackson, J., Badger, K., & Halvorsen J. (2003). Calling it rape: Differences in experiences of women who do or do not label their sexual assault as rape. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 27, 233-242.

This article describes a study of 504 predominantly White female college students from a midsize, Southeastern, public university. These women responded to three surveys: a questionnaire with 16 questions about criminal/aggressive acts or beliefs including one question that asked, “Have you ever been raped by a man?”; a modified version of the Sexual Experiences Survey; a series of questions asking about the elements of an assault experience; and a written portion asking for descriptions of sexual assaults experienced by the subject or based on disclosures from other women. The rape experiences of 33 women who chose to call what they experienced rape were compared to 56 women who did not label their experience as rape. Acknowledged rape victims were older, did not know the perpetrator as well, experienced more forceful assaults, and had stronger negative emotions to the assault. Women were most likely to call an assault rape if the perpetrator was not a boyfriend, they woke up being penetrated, or the perpetrator used force to dominate them during the assault. Women were unlikely to call their experience rape when the assault involved a boyfriend, impairment by alcohol or drugs, forced oral sex, or forced masturbation.

Topics: College; male-female relations; survivors

Kalof, L. (2000). Ethnic differences in female sexual victimization. Sexuality and Culture: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly, 4, 75-97.

This study analyzed 383 undergraduate women’s responses to a survey inquiring about their personal sexual victimization experiences. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between alcohol, ethnicity, childhood incest, and childhood sexual abuse from a non-family member on a woman’s sexual victimization experiences while in college. The women’s college sexual victimization experiences were then separated into four groups according to their most invasive experience; (a) sexual contact, (b) sexual coercion, (c) attempted rape, and (d) rape. The results from this study showed main effects for alcohol, ethnicity, childhood incest, and childhood sexual abuse from a non-family member. There were also significant differences between White, Black, Hispanic, and Asian women on two of the levels of victimization.

Topics: Alcohol; college; racial/ethnic differences

Kaysen, D., Neighbors, C., Martell, J., Fossos, N. & Larimer, M. (2006). Incapacitated rape and alcohol abuse. Addictive Behaviors, 31, 1820-1832. [Posted December 2006.]

Key Points: High rates of alcohol consumption both predicted and followed sexual assault among a sample of college students.

Abstract: Male and female students at three colleges completed questionnaires about alcohol use at three time points over three years. Incapacitated rape was assessed with the question, “have you ever been pressured or forced to have sex with someone because you were too drunk to prevent it?” More women than men reported ever having experienced incapacitated sexual assault (10.0% vs. 5.7%).

Students who drank the most and had the most self-reported alcohol-related problems were more likely to experience incapacitated sexual assault. The relationship was cyclical: after sexual assault, students drank more and had more alcohol-related problems. Women who had never experienced incapacitated rape and who were not raped during the study period drank less than other students.

Results from the study indicated that programs to discourage high-risk drinking among college students may help reduce incidence of sexual assault. The researchers suggested that early intervention following sexual assault may help prevent later increases in alcohol use and alcohol-related problems.

Topics: Alcohol; college

Klaw, E. L., Lonsway, K. A., Berg, D. R., Waldo, C. R., Kothari, C., Mazurek, C. J., & Hegeman, K. E. (2005). Challenging rape culture: Awareness, emotion and action through campus acquaintance rape education. Women & Therapy, 28, 47-63.

The authors conducted a qualitative exploration of college students' experiences with an intensive semester-long rape prevention education course. The Campus Acquaintance Rape Education (CARE) program is based on a feminist perspective, emphasizing the role of gender inequality in sexual violence. Students enrolled in the course are trained to facilitate rape education workshops on campus. The data sources consisted of focus group discussions and reaction papers written by CARE students. Using content analysis, the authors identified three themes related to the effects of the CARE course: 1) increased rape consciousness, 2) emotional reactions to the course material, and 3) increased skills and activism. Unique reactions by men, women, and female survivors were documented. The authors conclude with suggestions for rape education programs and related research.

Topics: College; curriculum; prevention

Konradi, A. (2003). A strategy for increasing postrape medical care and forensic examination: Marketing sexual assault nurse examiners to the college population. Violence Against Women, 9, 955-988.

The goal of this study was to evaluate the processes and outcomes of a social marketing campaign that advertised sexual assault nurse examiner (SANE) services to the student body of a Midwestern university. Messages were developed that targeted rape myths and probable student-specific concerns as they related to SANE service usage. After poster advertisements with these messages were developed, they were evaluated by a class of undergraduate sociology students. After refinement, posters were displayed during two 2-week time periods in different quarters of the academic year. To target the entire student-body, posters were placed in toilet stalls of public buildings and dormitories. Television public service announcements also ran during the latter 2-week time period. For evaluation, a survey was developed and completed by a total of 653 students at the university. Findings indicated that approximately half of the students reported seeing SANE posters. On-campus residents and female students were more likely to identify as having been exposed to posters than off-campus residents and male students. Students exposed to more sources of information about SANE services, including nonposter sources, had greater knowledge about SANE services. Students who viewed themselves at high risk for sexual assault – mostly women – were more likely to assert that they would recommend SANE services to someone else. Finally, data on SANE service usage was still being collected and was therefore not included in the results. Proposed improvements for the marketing campaign included targeting messages toward men as victim allies; training professors to incorporate SANE information into their classes; and continuing to do SANE marketing campaigns during or in conjunction with sexual assault awareness events.

Topics: College; risk; victim services

Koss, M. P., & Dinero, T. E. (1989). Discriminant analysis of risk factors for sexual victimization among a national sample of college women. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 57, 242-250.

This research examined the accuracy with which rape and lesser sexual assaults were predicted among a representative national sample of 2,723 college women. A total of 14 risk variables operationalized three vulnerability hypotheses: (a) vulnerability-creating traumatic experiences, (b) social-psychological vulnerability, and (c) vulnerability-enhancing situations. Each hypothesis was tested individually and a composite model was developed using discriminant analysis. Only the traumatic experiences variables clearly improved over the base rates in identifying rape victims, but risk variables from each vulnerability hypothesis met criteria for inclusion in the composite model. A risk profile emerged that characterized only 10% of the women, but among them the risk of rape was twice the rate of women without the profile. The concept of traumatic sexualization was used to explain this finding. However, the vast majority of sexually victimized women (75–91%) could not be differentiated from nonvictims.

Topics: College; risk; vulnerability

Koss, M. P., Gidycz, C. A., & Wisniewski, N. (1987). The scope of rape: Incidence and prevalence of sexual aggression and victimization in a national sample of higher education students. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 55, 162-170.

Inadequacies in the methods used to measure sexual assault impact national crime statistics, criminal victimization studies, convictions, or incarceration rates by causing them to fail in reflecting the true scope of rape. Studies that have avoided the limitations of these methods have revealed very high rates of overt rape and lesser degrees of sexual aggression. The goal of the present study was to extend previous work to a national basis. The Sexual Experiences Survey was administered to a national sample of 6,159 women and men enrolled in 32 institutions representative of the diversity of higher education settings across the United States. Women's reports of experiencing and men's reports of perpetrating, attempted rape, sexual coercion, and sexual contact were obtained, including both the rates of prevalence since age 14 and of incidence during the previous year. The findings support published assertions of high rates of rape and other forms of sexual aggression among large normal populations. Although the results are limited in generalizability to postsecondary students, this group represents 26% of all persons aged 18–24 years within the United States.

Topics: College; perpetration; prevalence; statistics

Lanier, C. A., & Elliot, M. N. (1997). A new instrument for the evaluation of a date rape prevention program. Journal of College Student Development, 38, 673-676.

This article presents the results of a study of a new behavior scale designed specifically to evaluate the efficacy of date rape prevention programs. The sample included 436 college students who filled-out the College Date Rape Attitude and Behavior Survey (CDRABS). The survey contains 20 questions addressing attitudes and 7 questions addressing behaviors, all of which pertain to heterosexual date rape on campuses. Women had lower rape-supportive attitudes than men, suggesting convergent validity of this scale with other measures of rape-supportive attitudes. Significant correlations between certain attitude and behavior items indicate that the attitude scale may be predictive of rape-supportive behavior among men as well as predictive of women's self-reported high risk behaviors given certain attitudes toward sexual activity among the women. The authors propose that the CDRABS may be useful for measuring students' initial attitudes and behaviors as well as serving as an instrument in the evaluation of date rape prevention programs designed to enhance awareness of date rape prevention.

Topics: College; evaluation; male-female relations; prevention; risk

Loh, C., Gidycz, C. A., Lobo, T. R., & Luthra, R. (2005). A prospective analysis of sexual assault perpetration: Risk factors related to perpetrator characteristics. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20, 1325-1348.

The purpose of the study was to assess perpetrator risk factors for committing sexual assault. The risk factors under investigation included peer influences, beliefs and attitudes about sexuality, alcohol use, and token resistance. A longitudinal design was implemented and included a baseline, 3-month follow-up, and 7-month follow-up. Out of 325 undergraduate male students, 215 participated in all three assessment periods. Approximately one third (31.2%) of the participants reported engaging in sexually aggressive behaviors after age 14 and before starting the study. The prospective analyses showed that history of sexual perpetration and fraternity membership at baseline were significant predictors of sexual aggression during the 3-month time period. Significant predictors of sexual aggression during the 7-month time period were sexual perpetration during the 3-month follow-up and adversarial heterosexual beliefs. Other variables were not significant predictors. The impact of the findings on sexual assault prevention programs for men is discussed.

Topics: College; perpetration; risk

Lottes, I. L., & Kuriloff, P. J. (1994). Sexual socialization differences by gender, Greek membership, ethnicity, and religious background. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 18, 203-219.

Examined how parental and peer sexual socialization influences are related to gender, ethnicity, religious background, and college membership in a fraternity or sorority. A sample of 557 college students (52% male, 48% female) including 76% White, 13% Asian, and 7% Black, completed questionnaires both as entering first year students and as seniors. Compared to women, men continued to experience a more permissive sexual socialization from both parents and peers. Fraternity and sorority membership was associated with a more permissive socialization from peers but not parents. Asian students reported a more restrictive sexual socialization than Blacks or Caucasians. With respect to religious background, there were no significant differences in peer sexual socialization; however, Jewish participants reported a significantly more permissive parental sexual socialization than did Catholic and Protestant participants.

Topics: Athletes/fraternities; college; racial/ethnic differences

Ménard, K. S., Hall, G. C. N., Phung, A. H., Ghebrial, M. F. E., & Martin, L. (2003). Gender differences in sexual harassment and coercion in college students: Developmental, individual, and situational determinants. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 18, 1222-1239.

The focus of this study was to learn more about possible gender differences in sexual coercion and harassment behaviors by examining predictors of these behaviors. The researchers hypothesized that developmental, individual, and situational determinants will have additive effects on sexually harassing and coercive behaviors. Additionally, individual differences will mediate the relationship between developmental factors (i.e., child and adult sexual victimization) and sexual harassment and coercion. Lastly, alcohol expectancies are expected to affect sexual aggression. College students were recruited for this study, with 148 males and 278 female students participating. They were assigned to groups varying in size and were instructed to complete questionnaires pertaining to their sexual attitudes and experiences. These questionnaires included measures concerning child and adult sexual abuse, personality traits, and alcohol expectancies as well as nonsexually aggressive, sexually harassing, and coercive behaviors. As was predicted, men scored higher on both the sexual harassment and sexual coercion scales while women had significantly higher scores on the adult victimization scales. Furthermore, a significant correlation between sexual harassment and child sexual abuse was found for the men, in contrast to the women. There were no significant gender differences on the child sex abuse or the alcohol expectancies scales. In conclusion, findings support the first hypothesis that developmental factors, individual traits, and alcohol expectancies predicted men’s and women’s sexually harassing and coercive behavior. Nonetheless, analyses pertaining to the mediating role of individual differences yielded mixed results. Suggestions for future research are presented.

Topics: Alcohol; college; harassment; male-female relations

Messman-Moore, T. L. & Brown, A. L. (2006). Risk perception, rape, and sexual revictimization: A prospective study of college women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30, 159-172. [Posted January 2007.]

Key Points: Delayed responses to a hypothetical acquaintance rape scenario increased college women’s risks for rape and revictimization during an 8 month follow-up period.

Abstract: In this longitudinal study, 262 women completed a series of questionnaires four times over eight months. Rates of sexual victimization and rape experienced by participants were assessed over time. At baseline, 56.8% of the women had already experienced some form of sexual victimization in their lifetime.
Participants were asked to read two scenarios ending in rape, one involving a male acquaintance and the other a male stranger (scenarios are presented in the Appendix).  Women indicated at what point during the scenario they would feel uncomfortable and when they would leave the situation.

During the eight month follow-up period, 43.4% of participants reported some type of unwanted sexual experience, and 10% of the women were raped. Prior victimization and delayed risk response (i.e., leaving the hypothetical situation later in the scenario) were associated with increased likelihood of sexual victimization during the course of the study. 

The researchers recommended that prevention programs place more emphasis on risk-reduction behaviors rather than risk identification, and that acquaintance rape scenarios should be used more than stranger rape scenarios in sexual violence education programs.

Topics: College; prevalence; risk

Milhausen, R., McBride, K. & Jun, M. (2006). Evaluating a peer-led, theatrical sexual assault prevention program: How do we measure success? College Student Journal, 40, 316-328. [Posted October 2006.]

Key Points: Sexual assault prevention programs that discuss ambiguous sexual situations must clearly emphasize the differences between consensual sex and rape, or risk unintentionally reinforcing rape myths.  

Abstract: Researchers evaluated the success of a peer-led sexual assault prevention intervention. The program consists of a skit about a date that ended in a sexual encounter. The skit is followed by group discussion and education about sexual assault on campus.
Thirty-seven men and 37 women completed a pre- and post-test. Males were more likely than females to endorse rape-supportive myths both before and after. After the presentation, fewer males and females agreed with two measures of rape-myth acceptance, but both had a slight decrease in accepting that “No means stop.” This might be explained by ambiguity in the skit, and the researchers recommend making the point more clearly and strongly.

Researchers also looked for differences in results between two instruments: the Rape Myth Acceptance Scale (RMAS) and the Sexual Beliefs Scale (SBS). Because no difference was found pre- and post-test on the RMAS, but the SBS measured differences in 3 of 5 subscales, researchers suggest that the SBS is a more useful tool.

Limits of the study include a small and non-random sample. It is not known if attitude changes lasted over time.

Topics: College; evaluation; myths/stereotypes

Muehlenhard, C. L., Friedman, D. E., & Thomas, C. M. (1985). Is date rape justifiable? The effects of dating activity, who initiated, who paid, and men's attitudes toward women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 9, 297-309.

This article focuses on how date rape can be rated as justifiable by male undergraduate students, based on the circumstances. Two studies are presented in this article in which male undergraduate students are given various written vignettes about the date of two characters. Rape was rated as more justifiable if the couple went to his apartment, if the woman – rather than the man – initiated the date, and when the man paid for the date. The implications of these results are discussed, as are suggestions for further study.

Topics: College; male-female relations; myths/stereotypes

Mustaine, E. E., & Tewksbury, R. (1999). A routine activity theory explanation for women's stalking victimizations. Violence Against Women, 5, 43-62.

This article presents a routine activity theory model for predicting stalking victimization likelihood for women. Surveys administered to 861 university women in nine institutions were examined. Using routine activity theory, the model highlights lifestyle behaviors and interactions as predictors of stalking victimization. While routine activity theory typically highlights the role of demographics and status as predictors of victimization, this analysis emphasizes the role of women's social interactions and substance use in victimization risk. Significant predictors of victimization likelihood include substance use variables, activities in public settings, and residence off campus.

Topics: College; risk; stalking; theory

O'Donohue, W., Yeater, E. A., & Fanetti, M. (2003). Rape prevention with college males: The roles of rape myth acceptance, victim empathy, and outcome expectancies. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 18, 513-531.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the role of individual differences in influencing the effects of rape prevention programs targeting men. One objective was to examine the association between the effects of anti-rape videotape content and men's sexual coercive histories. A second objective was to investigate the effects of the anti-rape videotape on men's sex-related alcohol expectancies. The sample consisted of 45 male undergraduate students. Twenty-two participants were categorized as sexually coercive and 23 participants were sexually noncoercive based on responses to a modified version of the Sexual Experiences Survey. Participants were randomly assigned to either the anti-rape videotape or control videotape condition. Effects of the anti-rape videotape on rape-myth acceptance and sex-related alcohol expectancies were influenced by men's coerciveness. Implications of the findings for rape prevention programs are presented.

Topics: Alcohol; college; evaluation; prevention

O'Sullivan, L. F., Byers, E. S., & Finkelman, L. (1998). A comparison of male and female college students' experiences of sexual coercion. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 22, 177-195.

The current research focuses on the phenomenology of men and women's experience of sexual coercion. College students (N = 433), who responded to an anonymous survey, were randomly selected as participants. More men than women reported being sexually coercive in the preceding year. Many similarities were noted between men and women in the context in which the coercion took place. Women expressed greater resistance to sexual coercion than men and had stronger negative emotional reactions. These findings emphasize the need to reassess current approaches to interpreting prevalence of sexual coercion and direct attention to the circumstances surrounding sexual coercion. These findings also accentuate the need to educate both men and women about men and women's sexuality and sexual socialization.

Topics: College; male-female relations; prevalence

Parrot, A., Cummings, N., Marchell, T. C., & Hofher, J. (1994). A rape awareness and prevention model for male athletes. Journal of American College Health, 42, 179-184.

Sexual assault prevention programs on college campuses tend to focus on changing female rather than male behaviors and are often not effective in preventing acquaintance rape. Educational efforts must be designed to overcome both men's and women's denial of the problem of rape and must inform men about acceptable forms of sexual interaction. This article discusses a proactive, rape prevention program implemented with a university varsity football team. A framework for a rape awareness/prevention program that targets male college athletes is presented. The goals of rape prevention for male athletes must include educating students about the behaviors, risks, and consequences of committing sexual assault. Education programs must also challenge attitudes that demean or objectify women, as well as messages of male domination as normative, which condone and perpetuate rape-prone environments. Rape prevention efforts should address interrelated issues such as relationship expectations, gender roles, power dynamics, communication, and alcohol and other drug use. The authors recommend the development of a sequential series of programs based on a 4-year cycle that introduces fundamental concepts surrounding the issue of sexual assault. Issues of moral development, attitudes, and assumptions – including those toward sexual entitlement – are discussed. A specific format for this program is presented, including engaging techniques for facilitators.

Topics: Athletes/fraternities; college; curriculum; prevention

Pinzone-Glover, H. A., Gidycz, C. A., & Jacobs, C. (1998). An acquaintance rape prevention program: Effects on attitudes toward women, rape-related attitudes, and perceptions of rape scenarios. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 22, 605-621.

The authors investigated the effects of an acquaintance rape prevention program on college students' attitudes toward rape and attitudes toward women, perceptions of acquaintance rape scenarios, and rape empathy. Participants (N = 152) were led to believe that they were participating in two separate experiments in order to decrease demand characteristics. Results indicate that intervention-group men and women became more empathic toward the victim than the control group was at post intervention. Within the intervention group, men changed more in their attitudes toward women post intervention than did women. In addition to positive attitude change, results with the date rape scenarios suggested that intervention-group men became more certain of their definitions of rape situations post intervention. Prior to the intervention, women were generally more certain of their definitions than were men, with intervention-group men approximating women's responses post intervention.

Topics: College; male-female relations; prevention

Potter, R. H., Krider, J. E., & McMahon P. M. (2000). Examining elements of campus sexual violence policies: Is deterrence or health promotion favored? Violence Against Women, 6, 1345-1362.

The authors compare criminal justice and public health perspectives in order to understand sexual violence policies. The public health model focuses on prevention through health promotion, while the criminal justice model is based primarily on deterrence. Policies formulated under different theoretical perspectives are likely to have different implications and outcomes. This study focused on campus sexual violence policies from the two perspectives. Policies in a sample of 100 United States colleges and universities in 1998 were examined. The authors present a descriptive analysis of the types of sexual violence prevention programs and dissemination of knowledge about the policies, and then analyze the policy data utilizing content analytic techniques. They found that deterrence-based prevention efforts were most common, followed by risk- or opportunity-reduction approaches. The authors conclude by discussing the possible impact of campus sexual violence prevention efforts where the public health and criminal justice approaches are merged.

Topics: College; evaluation; prevention

Rosenthal, E. H., Heesacker, M., & Neimeyer, G. J. (1995). Changing the rape-supportive attitudes of traditional and nontraditional male and female college students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 42, 171-177.

The authors sought to determine if a psycho-educational intervention proven effective with less traditional individuals could also be used to influence rape-related attitudes of individuals possessing traditional sex role attitudes. Male and female undergraduates (N = 245) were classified on the basis of their sex role traditionality and either received the intervention or served as untreated controls. Multivariate ANOVA revealed that intervention recipients were less adherent to rape myths and expressed less rape-supportive attitudes than did controls. Participants were subsequently contacted by phone in an appeal for women's safety projects. The students were unaware that the phone call was part of the experiment. On one of the phone appeal measures, experimental participants' responses were significantly less rape-supportive than were control participants' responses.

Topics: College; evaluation; myths/stereotypes

Runtz, M. G. (2002). Health concerns of university women with a history of child physical and sexual maltreatment. Child Maltreatment, 7, 241-253.

This article describes a study of 775 female college students enrolled in psychology at a medium-size, western Canadian university. Subjects completed a 20-page survey that included measures of abuse history during childhood (including child sexual abuse and physical abuse using the Physical Maltreatment Scale) and current physical health concerns (using the Menstrual Distress Questionnaire, Pre-Menstrual and Menstrual Phase scales, and a health symptoms checklist based partially on the Psychosomatic Symptoms Checklist). Within this sample, 20% of the subjects reported a history of child physical maltreatment and 19% reported a history of child sexual abuse. A history of physical maltreatment was found to be related to all three areas of physical health concerns and shown to interact with sexual abuse, resulting in greater premenstrual distress.

Topics: College; effects; survivors

Runtz, M. G., & O’Donnell, C. W. (2003). Students’ perceptions of sexual harassment: Is it harassment only if the offender is a man and the victim is a woman? Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 33, 963-982.

Studies on sexual harassment have shown that men and women do not view sexual harassment the same. Women are much more likely to identify sexual harassment than men are. The current study aims to determine the influence that gender and past sexual assault victimization has on the perception of sexual harassment. A total of 241 undergraduate students were asked to provide information about their past sexual harassment experiences and then asked to rate to what extent they rated several different scenarios as exhibiting sexual harassment. Results indicate that women were more likely than men to identify sexual harassment. That is, men were significantly less likely to view interactions between a female professor and a male student as exhibiting sexual harassment than women participants. Participants were more likely to identify sexual harassment in scenarios where the offender was a man and the victim a woman. Past sexual harassment experiences did not significantly impact the participants’ perceptions of sexual harassment. Results of this study imply that men and women hold different views of what constitutes sexual harassment. The study further recognizes the need for education and training in the prevention of sexual harassment victimization and perpetration.

Topics: College; harassment; male-female relations

Schewe, P. A., & O'Donohue, W. (1996). Rape prevention with high-risk males: Short-term outcome of two interventions. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 25, 455-471.

This article discusses the development and evaluation of two interventions designed to reduce the amount of date rape attempted by male college students: (1) the Rape Supportive Cognition's (RSC) intervention, which targets commonly held false beliefs that promote or condone coercive sexual behavior; and (2) the Victim/Empathy Outcome Expectancies (VE/OE) intervention, which targets poor victim empathy and problematic rape outcome expectancies. Seventy-four high-risk subjects, as determined by scores on the Attraction to Sexual Aggression scale (ASA), were randomly assigned to one of the treatment groups or to a no-treatment control group. Treatment effects were assessed using subjects' pre- and posttest scores on the ASA, the Rape Myth Acceptance, the Acceptance of Interpersonal Violence, and the Adversarial Sexual Beliefs scales as well as subjects' posttest scores on the Rape Conformity Assessment. Results indicated that both treatments were significantly more effective than no treatment, with the RSC group showing clinically significant changes on three of the five dependent measures while the VE/OE group evidenced significant changes on only one measure.

Topics: College; evaluation; perpetration; prevention

Schwartz, M. D., & Leggett, M. S. (1999). Bad dates or emotional trauma? The aftermath of campus sexual assault. Violence Against Women, 5, 251-271.

Critics of campus rape research have suggested that researchers exaggerate their figures by confounding rape with bad dates. While researchers have compared stranger to acquaintance rapes, they have not compared women raped while too drunk to resist to those raped by force. This study of 65 rape victims (in a sample of 388 college seniors) found no evidence for critics' claims. Women raped while intoxicated are not less emotionally affected and do not blame themselves more. Most women did not classify their experiences as rape, although under criminal law they were all victims. The authors assert that this lack of recognition is what causes hidden victims (i.e., those who do not report rapes or seek help for their victimization experience).

Topics: Alcohol; college; myths/stereotypes

Shelton, J. N., & Chavous, T. M. (1999). Black and White college women's perceptions of sexual harassment. Sex Roles, 40, 593-615.

This study examines how racial factors may influence college women's perceptions about sexual harassment. The authors examined whether 46 Black and 89 White women perceived unsolicited sexual behavior between Black women and Black men differently from such behavior between Black women and White men. The data suggest that sexual harassment between Black women and men is regarded as inconsequential as compared to sexual behavior between Black women and White men. The findings are examined with regard to the importance of studying the experience of sexual harassment for women of color.

Topics: College; harassment; racial/ethnic differences

Shultz, S. K., Scherman, A., & Marshall, L. J. (2000). Evaluation of university-based date rape prevention program: Effect on attitudes and behavior related to rape. Journal of College Student Development, 41, 193-201.

This study evaluates the effectiveness of the Campus Rape Prevention program in changing rape-related attitudes and behaviors of 60 male and female undergraduate students (18–22 years old). Participants in the treatment groups were less accepting of rape myths than those in the control groups, suggesting that treatment is better than no treatment. Results suggest that changes observed between treatment and control groups were the result of the prevention program rather than pretests. It was not possible to dismiss the existence of a relationship between rape-related attitudes and behaviors. The results of this study offer support that male participants' attitudes in support of rape decreased following the prevention program.

Topics: College; evaluation; myth/stereotypes; prevention

Smith, P., White, J., & Holland, J. (2003). A longitudinal perspective on dating violence among adolescent and college age women. American Journal of Public Health, 93, 1104-1109.

This article examines the covictimization of sexual and physical assault in dating relationships from high school through college. The authors performed a longitudinal study involving two cohorts of university women aged 18 to 19 years (N = 1,569). The women completed five surveys covering childhood, adolescence, and college victimization during four years at university. Measurements included sexual abuse, physical abuse, and domestic violence. Results indicate that women are at greatest risk for physical dating violence and covictimization during adolescence. Those women were at significant risk for revictimization in college, with either physical or sexual victimization increasing risk for the other type (i.e., covictimization). This trend continued throughout the college period. The article concludes with a recommendation for prevention/intervention programs and research to be implemented in high school in order to reduce later revictimization.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; college; risk

Sochting, I., Fairbrother, N., & Koch, W. J. (2004). Sexual assault of women: Prevention efforts and risk factors. Violence Against Women, 10, 73-93.

This review article summarizes the research on the effectiveness of different types of rape prevention programs, including attitude change and self-defense programs. A review of the body of literature on risk factors for sexual assault is also presented. Strategies for improving rape prevention programs are highlighted and include identifying targets for behavioral change based on risk factors and training women in rape resistance strategies. Results suggested that attitude change was a less effective prevention approach.

Topics: Avoidance/resistance; college; evaluation; prevention; risk; vulnerability

Stephens, K. A., & George, W. H. (2004). Effects of anti-rape video content on sexually coercive and noncoercive college men's attitudes and alcohol expectancies. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 34, 402-416.

This study investigated the short-term effects of a video-based rape prevention program for college men. The video content had three components: rape myths, victim empathy, and outcome expectancies. A pilot study consisting of 101 male undergraduate students was conducted to determine the content validity and acceptability of the three videotape components. In the main study, a separate sample of 102 male undergraduates was randomly assigned to the video-based experimental program or an alternate video-based program that did not target the three components of interest. Results showed that the experimental videotape was associated with significant changes in several rape-related measures, such as attraction to sexual aggression, rape myth acceptance, and rape empathy compared to the alternate videotape. This study highlights the importance of developing and implementing programs to decrease men's potential for committing rape.

Topics: College; evaluation; prevention

Tewsbury, R., & Mustaine, E. E. (2001). Lifestyle factors associated with sexual assault of men: A routine activity theory analysis. Journal of Men’s Studies, 9, 153-182.

The purpose of this study is to extend previous knowledge about the sexual assault victimization of males from female perpetrators. The authors have attempted to conduct a thorough study by evaluating: (a) the different levels of sexual assault severity men experience, (b) a large sample from various educational institutions, (c) current routines and previous lifestyles in assessing victimization vulnerability, and (d) victim characteristics that are gender specific. The participants in this study were 1,215 college students, both male and female, attending 12 different institutes in southern North America. This study found that alcohol use and fraternity affiliation were not indicators of male sexual assault victimization. Nonwhites, college athletes, and men who regularly went to the same bar and those who frequently used drugs were all more likely to be victims of sexual assault.

Topics: Alcohol; athletes; college; male-female relations; male rape; racial/ethnic differences; risk; vulnerability

Wechsler, H., Dowdall, G., Maenner, G., Gledhill-Hoyt, J., & Lee, H. (1998). Changes in binge drinking and related problems among American college students between 1993 and 1997. Results of the Harvard School of Public Health College Alcohol Study. College Health, 47, 57-68.

In 1997 the Harvard School of Public Health conducted a repeat survey of 130 of the 140 colleges that participated in the 1993 College Alcohol Study. The original colleges surveyed were a random sample of 4-year colleges in the United States. Binge drinking as well as health and behavioral consequences of drinking were measured by using the results of completed questionnaires. Secondary binge effects of students, who were not current binge drinkers themselves, were examined. Alcohol-related sexual assault and unwanted sexual advances occurred almost exclusively to women. The results do not show significant change in binge drinking among college students.

Topics: Alcohol; college; prevalence

Yeater, E. A., & O'Donohue, W. (1999). Sexual assault prevention programs: Current issues, future directions, and the potential efficacy of interventions with women. Clinical Psychology Review, 19, 739-771.

Current problems facing the primary prevention of sexual assault are reviewed. Effective sexual assault prevention programs for both males and females have been slow to develop due to the fact that the etiologies of sexual assault have not been identified. Although dissemination of prevention programs has become increasingly popular in recent years, few programs have evaluated the extent to which the constructs identified in the interventions are effective at decreasing rates of sexual assault. The authors discuss previous studies in sexual assault prevention programs, methodological and conceptual problems that currently exist in the field, pragmatic difficulties regarding program implementation and evaluation, and recommendations for future research with an emphasis on interventions with female participants. It is concluded that the long-term negative consequences often associated with sexual victimization require that effective prevention programs are developed to decrease the high rates of sexual assault that occur on college campuses.

Topics: College; evaluation; prevention

Yescavage, K. (1999). Teaching women a lesson: Sexually aggressive and sexually nonaggressive men's perceptions of acquaintance and date rape. Violence Against Women, 5, 796-812.

The author claims that date and acquaintance rape is a pervasive problem on college campuses. In this paper, the influence of situational factors and individual differences on college men's perceptions of acquaintance and date rape scenarios were investigated. Onset of refusal and duration of relationship factors influenced men's perceptions of victim and perpetrator accountability as well as their likelihood to label a situation rape. Differences were also found between perceptions of men who self-reported engaging in sexually aggressive behaviors and men who did not. Both token resistance and male entitlement explanations were taken into account while explaining these findings.

Topics: Avoidance/resistance; college; male-female relations

updated 08/01/07