NOTE: These summaries were written by SVPEP staff and are based on the original papers. The information available on this web site is provided as a public service and does not necessarily reflect the opinion of the U.S. Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, the Arizona Department of Health Services, or the University of Arizona.

Basile, K. C. (1999). Rape by acquiescence: The ways in which women “give in” to unwanted sex with their husbands. Violence Against Women, 5, 1036-1058.

Sexual coercion in marriages or long-term intimate relationships used to be one of the most untouchable and invisible topics in the field of violence against women. While it still begs heightened awareness, the feminist movement of the 1970s helped to move it into social consciousness. This study focuses on the ambiguities and realities of sexual coercion within marriage by extending Finkelhor and Yllo’s 1985 typology of nonphysical coercion. Through qualitative analyses of 41 interviews, five methods of acquiescence are reviewed. The first type was described by 10% of the sample as sex that is initially unwanted but then “unwanted turns to wanted.” It was considered to be the least severe form of acquiescence. Another group (76% of the sample) referred to their “wifely duty” as the guiding context in which they acquiesce. The third type was described by 27% of the sample as acquiescence occurring when it was “easier not to argue” such that they submitted to unwanted sex in order to preserve the peace within the relationship. The fourth group (7% of the sample) described their acquiescence occurring in the face of potential harm (i.e., “don’t know what will happen if I don’t”). The fifth type was classified as the most severe form, often involving physical coercion (i.e., “know what will happen if I don’t”) and was described by 20% of the sample. The author discusses the reluctance and/or inability of many women to define their experiences within long-term intimate relationships as rape. This issue has significant ramifications for feminist scholarship.

Topics: Avoidance/resistance; marital rape; myths/stereotypes

Brecklin, L. R., & Ullman, S. E. (2005). Self-defense or assertiveness training and women’s responses to sexual attacks. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20, 738-762.

In this study, the authors examine the impact self-defense training potentially has on women’s responses to sexual assault. The sample included 3,187 undergraduate females from 32 colleges who completed a self-report questionnaire (National Survey of Intergender Relationships). Students were asked about experiences pertaining to unwanted sexual contact, sexual coercion, attempted and/or completed rape, assault characteristics, their perception concerning their victimization experiences, and postassault experiences. Analyses compared women with preassault training to women without any reported self-defense or assertiveness training prior to their assault experiences. Findings revealed that students who had participated in training were more likely to be less scared and more angry during their assault than women who had not had any training. The former were also more likely to report success at stopping the offender. Interestingly, though, the students with preassault trainings were also more likely to undervalue the extent of their resistance. The authors postulate ways in which such findings may improve prevention programs designed to enhance women’s resistance strategies while also recognizing that the origin of sexual violence still rests with males.

Topics: Avoidance/resistance; prevention; survivors

Clay-Warner, J. (2002). Avoiding rape: The effects of protective actions and situational factors on rape outcome. Violence and Victims, 17, 691-705.

This study evaluates the attempted rape and completed rape reports of 434 women who responded to the National Crime Victimization Survey between 1992 and 1998. To evaluate the influence of specific actions on rape outcome, physical, forceful verbal retaliation, and nonforceful verbal retaliation by the victim was measured in both reports of attempted rape and completed rape. Results show that the victim’s physical resistance was associated with rape avoidance. Forceful verbal retaliation was ineffective in rape outcome while nonforceful verbal retaliation was actually associated with completed rape attempts.

Topics: Avoidance/resistance; perpetration; prevention

Clay-Warner, J. (2003). The context of sexual violence: Situational predictors of self-protective actions. Violence and Victims, 18, 543-556.

Past research has focused on the effectiveness of different self-defense strategies in rape avoidance. The current research focused on the situational factors of attempted or completed rape scenarios and the type of defense strategies used. The participants included 453 women who were victims of attempted or completed rape where in all cases the perpetrator was a male. The participants were asked to complete a survey revealing the specific elements of the attempted or completed rape. They were asked where the assault happened, when it happened, whether or not alcohol/drugs and/or weapons were involved, to what extent they knew their perpetrator (if at all), and if any bystanders were present at the time of the assault. The women were asked to disclose what type of resistance measures were exerted; (a) none, (b) verbal, and (c) physical. Results indicate that women were more likely to respond using verbal rape avoidance strategies than physical rape avoidance strategies in those assaults that happened at night, involved a weapon, and were perpetrated by the victims’ previous or current partner. Victims were more likely to exert physical resistance if they believed the perpetrators had used alcohol or drugs. The participants were more likely to offer no resistance than physical resistance when a previous or current intimate committed the assault. As such, the significance of situational elements of sexual assault needs to be incorporated into understanding women's use of self-protective behaviors.

Topics: Alcohol, avoidance/resistance; injury

Gidycz, C., Rich, C., Orchowski, L., King, C., & Miller, A. (2006). The evaluation of a sexual assault self-defense and risk-reduction program for college women: A prospective study. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30, 173-186. [Posted October 2006.]

Key Points: College women who participated in a sexual assault risk-reduction program were more likely to practice protective behaviors than women who did not participate. Neither program participation nor practicing protective behaviors made a difference in rates of sexual victimization over a 6-month follow-up period.

Abstract: Researchers examined changes in protective behaviors, sexual communication, and self-efficacy among college women participating in a sexual assault avoidance program (n=234) compared with a control group (n=266). The seven-hour skills-building program included lecture, video, group discussion, role play, and physical self-defense techniques. Three months later, a 1-½ hour “booster” session was given. Only self-protective behaviors increased over time more among program participants compared with the control group. About the same number of women in both groups reported experiencing moderate or severe victimization during the follow-up period. Among those who were victimized, program participants were more likely to blame the perpetrator. Researchers found that the only factor associated with being victimized during the follow-up period was a history of adolescent victimization.

Limits of the study include the small sample size. Program participants may have identified a broader range of experiences as sexual victimization than non-participants.

Topics: Avoidance/resistance; college; evaluation

Hamby, S., & Koss, M. (2003). Shades of gray: A qualitative study of terms used in the measurement of sexual victimization. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 27, 243-255.

This article presents results from five ethnically and geographically diverse focus groups that investigated the relationship between language in sexual victimization surveys and consequent reporting of sexual experiences. Participants were asked to examine the terms “unwanted,” “ voluntary,” “against your will,” and “sexual intercourse” as they pertain to an understanding of sexual experiences. The authors found terms such as “unwanted,” “nonvoluntary,” and “forced” to exhibit separate definitions. Participants perceived the concept of coercion to exist along a continuum. In addition, they emphasized the importance of gender differences such as social pressures, physical size, and the disproportionate burden of female victimization as they contributed to dissimilar perceptions of coercion. The authors suggest that forms of coercion need to be operationalized into specific, behavioral terms rather than remaining as general descriptors in order to improve any assessment of sexual victimization.

Topics: Avoidance/resistance; community attitudes/responses; racial/ethnic differences

Hollander, J. A. (2004). “I can take care of myself”: The impact of self-defense training on women’s lives. Violence Against Women, 10, 205-235.

The author examines how feminist self-defense classes positively impact women's lives not only by providing them with skills for reducing their risk of sexual assault, but also by enhancing their general sense of self confidence as well as their interactions with others. While there is a shortage of empirical evidence that self-defense classes actually do reduce a participant's risk of being sexually assaulted, circumstantial evidence indicates that such classes ought to be effective in reducing women’s fear and in improving their responses to violence. The current study was based on the results of surveys given to 36 women (mean age of 21 years) who had enrolled in two feminist self-defense classes taught over a 10-week period at a state university. The participants completed a survey before and after the self-defense class. As was hypothesized, the students felt more confident in their ability to prevent and avoid dangerous situations. Furthermore, they described additional improvements in their everyday lives; namely, the participants reported an improvement in their ability to interact with strangers, acquaintances, friends, employers, teachers, and intimates, as well as improvements in their feelings about their own bodies, their perceived self confidence, and their beliefs about men, women, and gender issues. The author suggests that the feminist self-defense classes transform women's lives regarding the fear of sexual assault, as well as transform their perception of their value in the world and their concept of gender. Hollander proposes that the lessons learned by participants concerning their everyday lives will indirectly reduce their likelihood of victimization by increasing their ability to prevent or respond to violence while positively impacting their overall sense of self and their place in the world as women.

Topics: Avoidance/resistance; prevention

Hollander, J. A. (2005). Challenging despair: Teaching about women’s resistance to violence. Violence Against Women, 11, 776-791.

This paper provides an interesting perspective on how to teach women about resistance to violence by focusing not merely on women’s victimization but rather, by emphasizing the role of resistance – whether verbal, physical, cognitive, or emotional. Hollander presents a discussion of specific readings as well as a discussion of the use of guest speakers and particular course assignments designed to integrate the theme of resistance into a course about violence against women. The purpose of this approach is to teach women about violence by focusing on resistance, thereby reducing fear, vulnerability, and despair that otherwise serve only to disempower women.

Topics: Avoidance/resistance; curriculum; prevention

Koss, M. P., & Harvey, M. R. (1991). The rape victim: Clinical and community interventions (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

Chapter 7: Preventing sexual assault
Rape prevention is an organizing theme in the sexual assault field. Virtually all community-based rape crisis centers and anti-rape projects at local, regional, or national levels sponsor rape prevention initiatives. This chapter examines preventive initiatives in the sexual assault field and touches on activities directed toward each of these goals. Primary attention is given to activities that promote rape elimination through public education and social change as well as rape avoidance through competence-building, risk-awareness, and self defense training.

Topics: Avoidance; community attitudes/responses; prevention

Krulewitz, J. E., & Kahn, A. S. (1983). Preferences for rape reduction strategies. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 7, 301-312.

Female and male subjects holding pro-feminist and non-feminist attitudes rated the desirability and expected effectiveness of four anti-rape strategies that varied according to locus of responsibility for reducing rape and the aggressiveness of the strategy. Sex, sex-role attitudes, responsibility for reducing rape, and the aggressiveness of strategies were examined. It was found that attitude toward sex roles was a more pervasive determinant of patterns of perceived effectiveness and desirability than was subject sex.

Topics: Avoidance/resistance; community attitudes/responses

Norris, J., Nurius, P. S., & Graham, T. L. (1999). When a date changes from fun to dangerous: Factors affecting women's ability to distinguish. Violence Against Women, 5, 230-250.

The likelihood of acquaintance rape depends in part on women's abilities to perceive risks. In this study, the authors assessed relationships between women's recognition of known situational risk factors and global perceived risk; prior victimization; and drinking habits. Women consistently distinguished between clear and ambiguous situational risk factors. However, these were not related to perceived global risk. They also underestimated their own risk of being assaulted relative to the risk of other women being assaulted. Both prior victimization and drinking habits were related to risk judgments. This study raises issues concerning the development of effective defensive strategies for combating sexual assault.

Topics: Alcohol; avoidance/resistance; risk

Nurius, P. S. (2000). Risk perception for acquaintance sexual aggression: A social-cognitive perspective. Aggression & Violent Behavior, 5, 63-78.

The authors discuss the fact that beliefs about sources of harm and personal susceptibility to harm have been shown to play an important role in subsequent self-protection from harm. Women generally report low levels of perceived personal risk from acquaintances and are therefore ill-prepared to prevent threat from them. In order to change this situation, we need a better understanding of factors that shape perception of risk and how these factors are likely to negatively and positively influence women's risk reduction and self-protection. To this end, the authors, review recent literature on risk perception and identify relevant applications of theory and findings to women's perception of risk for sexual aggression by acquaintances.

Topics: Avoidance/resistance; risk; theory

Sochting, I., Fairbrother, N., & Koch, W. J. (2004). Sexual assault of women: Prevention efforts and risk factors. Violence Against Women, 10, 73-93.

This review article summarizes the research on the effectiveness of different types of rape prevention programs, including attitude change and self-defense programs. A review of the body of literature on risk factors for sexual assault is also presented. Strategies for improving rape prevention programs are highlighted and include identifying targets for behavioral change based on risk factors and training women in rape resistance strategies. Results suggested that attitude change was a less effective prevention approach.

Topics: Avoidance/resistance; college; evaluation; prevention; risk; vulnerability

Ullman, S. E. (1997). Review and critique of empirical studies of rape avoidance. Criminal Justice & Behavior, 24, 177-204.

This paper reviewed published studies of rape avoidance in order to evaluate the scientific basis for rape avoidance advice. Results are evaluated in light of conceptual and methodological limitations of this literature, and specific recommendations for future research are provided. Consistent evidence suggests the effectiveness of forceful resistance strategies for avoiding rape; however, few studies have analyzed resistance within the social and situational contexts of rape to provide situation-specific information about rape avoidance. Larger, representative community studies are needed in which a broader range of situational factors, resistance strategies, and assault outcomes are assessed. Interactions of contextual factors such as pre-assault alcohol use and the victim-offender relationship with offense behaviors should be tested. Furthermore, data on the sequential ordering of offender attack and victim resistance should be analyzed to enhance prediction of the probability of completed rape and physical injury to victims.

Topics: Alcohol, avoidance/resistance

Ullman, S. E. (1998). Does offender violence escalate when women fight back? Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 13, 179-192.

Records of completed and attempted rape incidents reported to the Chicago police were examined to determine whether rapists escalate the level of violence in their attacks when victims fight back. Findings indicate that physical resistance by victims was not related to the use of physical force by the offender. Results were inconclusive in terms of whether resistance to verbal or physical attacks led to increased levels of offender violence after the rape. Limitations of the study include few women from the sample physically resisted their offenders and all incidents examined were cases of stranger rape.

Topics: Avoidance/resistance

Ullman, S. E., & Knight, R. A. (1991). A multivariate model for predicting rape and physical injury outcomes during sexual assaults. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 59, 724-731.

This report analyzes the court testimonies and police reports of 274 women who had either avoided rape or were raped by offenders who were committed to the Massachusetts Treatment Center for either violent, repetitive, or both types of offenses. The relationship of interest was between the victim’s level of resistance to sexual assault and the severity of the sexual assault. After situational factors were partialed out, hierarchical multiple regression revealed that the victim’s screaming/yelling was associated with a decrease in the level of sexual assault severity. Results also indicate that physical injury to the victim is a result of the offender’s physical aggression level, not the victim’s resistance measures. The victim’s pleading, begging, or reasoning with the offender resulted in higher probability of physical injury while remaining ineffective in reducing the severity of sexual assault. More forceful retaliation by the victim is associated with lower severity in sexual assault while nonforceful retaliation had no effect on sexual assault severity and increased the level of physical injury.

Topics: Avoidance/resistance; injury

Ullman, S. E., & Knight, R.A. (1992). Fighting back: Women's resistance to rape. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 7, 31-43.

Women's resistance strategies were examined using police reports and court testimonies of 274 women who were survivors of attempted or completed rapes (in cases where the offenders were subsequently incarcerated). The sequence of behaviors in the offender-victim interaction were analyzed to determine whether women who resist rape with physical force are increasing their risk for physical injury. This study indicates that the frequently found correlation between physical resistance and injury to women during a sexual assault might be the result of the initial level of the offender's violence and should not be used to discourage women from physically resisting rape.

Topics: Avoidance/resistance; injury

Ullman, S. E., & Knight, R. A. (1993). The efficacy of women's resistance strategies in rape situations. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 17, 23-38.

This article analyzes the effectiveness of women's resistance strategies for reducing the severity of sexual abuse and physical injury during sexual assaults. Data were obtained from police reports and court testimonies. Resistance strategies varied in their efficacy in different situations in a sample of violent stranger rapes. Results indicate that physical resistance strategies showed equal efficacy, whereas verbal strategies varied in their effectiveness. Over all, women who fought back forcefully were more likely to avoid rape than women who did not fight back, regardless of whether a weapon was present or not.

Topics: Avoidance/resistance; injury

Zoucha-Jensen, J. M., & Coyne, A. (1993). The effects of resistance strategies on rape. American Journal of Public Health, 83, 1633-1634.

The authors investigated which resistance strategies are associated with rape avoidance and the extent to which these strategies place the victim at risk for injury. Data were gathered from initial and supplemental police reports about 150 female sexual assault victims (aged 16+ years). Although the analysis could not determine causality, it did indicate that forceful verbal resistance, physical resistance, and fleeing were all associated with rape avoidance. Women who used forceful resistance were no more likely to have been injured than were women who did not resist.

Topics: Avoidance/resistance; injury

updated 08/01/07