NOTE: These summaries were written by SVPEP staff and are based on the original papers. The information available on this web site is provided as a public service and does not necessarily reflect the opinion of the U.S. Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, the Arizona Department of Health Services, or the University of Arizona.

Boeringer, S. B. (1999). Associations of rape-supportive attitudes with fraternal and athletic participation. Violence Against Women, 5, 81-90.

The author examined rape-supportive attitudes in a sample of fraternity members, university athletes, and a control population. In all, a sample of 477 male university students were recruited. Results indicate that fraternity men report significantly greater endorsement of five statements supportive of rape and adversarial gender beliefs than did the controls. The author also found that athletes reported significantly greater agreement with 14 rape-supportive statements than did men in the control condition. The control group only reported greater agreement with 2 rape-supportive statements. This study tends to support the contention that there is a measurable relationship between rape-supportive attitudes and membership in fraternal or athletic organizations.

Topics: Athletes; fraternities; myths/stereotypes

Brown, T. J., Sumner, K. E., & Nocera, R. (2002). Understanding sexual aggression against women. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 17, 937-952.

This article describes a study of 139 male college students attending a predominantly White, midsize, Midwestern university. These students responded to five questionnaires: the Psychosocial Function of Sports Scale (to assess sport ideology), a questionnaire measuring the types and amount of sports they participated in or viewed, the Attitudes Toward Women Scale (to measure attitudes towards women in society), the Coercive Sexuality Scale (to assess college males’ level of involvement in sexually coercive or aggressive behaviors), and a brief demographic questionnaire (which asked about age, class standing, and fraternity membership). Analysis of these data indicated that fraternity membership, conservative attitudes towards women, and viewing contact sports were significant predictors of sexual aggression against women. Higher scores predicted higher levels of aggression. Oddly, low scores on men’s contact sports participation also predicted higher levels of sexual aggression towards women.

Topics: Athletes; fraternities; male-female relations; perpetration

Forbes, G., Adams-Curtis, L., Pakalka, A., & White, K. (2006). Dating aggression, sexual coercion, and aggression-supporting attitudes among college men as a function of participation in aggressive high school sports. Violence Against Women, 12, 441-455. [Posted September 2006.]

Key Points: Participation in aggressive sports is associated with attitudes that support violence against women, and violent acts against women. This study does not, however, imply causal relationships between sports and violence against women (i.e. that aggressive sports cause men to be more violent, or that violent men choose to play aggressive sports).

Abstract: This article describes the findings from a study of 147 college men, in which 115 men reported that they had participated in 1 or more sports in high school. Of these 115 men, 101 men had played an "aggressive" sport (football, basketball, wrestling, or soccer). Relative to a comparison group of 46 men, the men who had participated in an aggressive sport in high school reported that they used more psychological and physical aggression, and more sexual coercion in their college dating relationships. These men also scored higher on measures of Acceptance of Violence, Hostility Toward Women, Rape Myth Acceptance, and Homonegativity scales.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; athletes

Frintner, M. P., & Rubinson, L. (1993). Acquaintance rape: The influence of alcohol, fraternity membership, and sports team membership. Journal of Sex Education & Therapy, 19, 272-284.

This study determined the extent of sexual victimization among undergraduate women at a large Midwestern university, with specific attention paid to alcohol use, fraternity membership, and sports team membership. The Sexually Stressful Events Survey was utilized with modifications clarifying the level of intoxication, and whether or not the accused was a member of a sports team or fraternity. Previous research documenting the high rate of occurrence of sexual assault and other sexually stressful events on college campuses was affirmed. In addition, it was found that alcohol was involved in the majority of the reported sexually stressful events, suggesting an association between alcohol and sexual violence. Both fraternity and sports team members were over-represented among the crimes of sexual assault, attempted sexual assault and battery, illegal restraint, and intimidation. Fraternity men represented approximately 25% of men on the campus, and were reported as 47.6% of the men involved in sexual assault or attempted sexual assault. Sports team members make up less than 2% of the campus population and were found to comprise 20.2% of the men involved in sexual assault or attempted sexual assault.

Topics: Alcohol; athletes; fraternities; prevalence

Holcomb, D. R., Savage, M. P., & Seehafer, R. W. (2002). A mixed-gender date rape prevention intervention targeting freshmen college athletes. College Student Journal, 36, 165-179.

Research on sexual assault has shown that college women are a high-risk group for victimization. Furthermore, studies have shown that a high percentage of college men admit to engaging in sexually coercive behavior. Researchers have suggested a relationship between rape tolerant attitudes and behavior and sexual assault perpetration. In this study, 141 freshmen college athletes at a large Mideastern university were separated into two groups in order to compare the effectiveness of a mixed-gender date rape prevention program. The Date Rape Attitudes Survey (DRAS) (Holcomb, Sondag, & Holcomb, 1993) was used to compare the treatment group’s posttest responses to the posttest responses of the control group (which received no mixed-gender date rape prevention training). Analysis of the results showed that attitudes more tolerant of date rape were more prevalent in the control group than in the treatment group. Also, male athletes were more likely to condone date rape than female athletes were. The impact of the mixed-gender date rape prevention program was not significantly different across gender.

Topics: Athletes; male-female relations; prevention

Koss, M. P., & Gaines, J. A. (1993). The prediction of sexual aggression by alcohol use, athletic participation, and fraternity affiliation. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 8, 94-108.

The objective of the research in this article was to analyze the cooperative effect of alcohol, athletic participation, and fraternity association on sexual aggression among male college students. A sample of 140 college athletes, from a highly ranked university, was taken. These male athletes had all responded to a survey in a college class. The results show that alcohol consumption is the greatest predictor of sexual aggression, followed by nicotine use. It was also determined that athletic participation contributed to the effect of sexual aggression but was a weaker predictor than alcohol was. No predictions of fraternity affiliation could be made. Limitations of the study were also discussed.

Topics: Alcohol; athletes; fraternities

Miller, K., Melnick, M., Farrell, M., Sabo, D., & Barnes, G. (2006). Jocks, gender, binge drinking, and adolescent violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21, 105-120. [Posted October 2006.]

Key Points: Not all school athletes identify as “jocks,” and not all jocks are involved in school sports. This study found that being a jock was associated with higher levels of violent behavior. The most violence was found among white male jocks who did not participate in sports.

Abstract: The Family and Adolescent Study gathered information on Western New York adolescents in six waves between 1989-1996. This article was based on a sample of 608 male and female adolescents from that study. The researchers looked at how 4 characteristics (jock identity, athletic participation, binge drinking, and gender) were associated with committing violence within the family or outside the family. They found that: males who identified as jocks but did not play sports were involved in more frequent violence outside the family than athlete jocks; jocks and non-jocks committed similar levels of family violence; binge-drinking was associated with family violence only among non-jocks; and females who identified as jocks were not more violent than non-jock females.

Limits to the study included a lack of specific information about the types of violence committed (for example, sexual violence, gang violence, or bullying). Adolescents were not asked to define what they meant by the term “jock.” Athletes were not separated out by sport, so differences between participants in individual and team sports or contact and no-contact sports could not be determined.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; athletes

Parrot, A., Cummings, N., Marchell, T. C., & Hofher, J. (1994). A rape awareness and prevention model for male athletes. Journal of American College Health, 42, 179-184.

Sexual assault prevention programs on college campuses tend to focus on changing female rather than male behaviors and are often not effective in preventing acquaintance rape. Educational efforts must be designed to overcome both men's and women's denial of the problem of rape and must inform men about acceptable forms of sexual interaction. This article discusses a proactive, rape prevention program implemented with a university varsity football team. A framework for a rape awareness/prevention program that targets male college athletes is presented. The goals of rape prevention for male athletes must include educating students about the behaviors, risks, and consequences of committing sexual assault. Education programs must also challenge attitudes that demean or objectify women, as well as messages of male domination as normative, which condone and perpetuate rape-prone environments. Rape prevention efforts should address interrelated issues such as relationship expectations, gender roles, power dynamics, communication, and alcohol and other drug use. The authors recommend the development of a sequential series of programs based on a 4-year cycle that introduces fundamental concepts surrounding the issue of sexual assault. Issues of moral development, attitudes, and assumptions – including those toward sexual entitlement – are discussed. A specific format for this program is presented, including engaging techniques for facilitators.

Topics: Athletes; college; curriculum; prevention

Sawyer, R. G., Thompson, E. E., & Chicorelli, A. M. (2002). Rape myth acceptance among intercollegiate student athletes: A preliminary examination. American Journal of Health Studies, 18, 19-25.

Little research has been conducted on the potential high risk of sexual violence perpetration by college athletes. The goal of this study was to provide a detailed understanding of college athletes' attitudes and perceptions toward sexual violence. Surveys were completed by 704 male and female college athletes from five public universities across the U.S. The surveys included demographic items, a revised version of Burt's Rape Myth Acceptance Scale, items relating to the definition of rape, and items on athletes’ perception of fellow athletes' involvement in sexual violence. Results showed that approximately 50% of male athletes thought that "about half" of women who reported rapes to police were lying and that "about half" of women invent the rapes that they report to police. Females, in contrast, were more likely to report that "very few" women lied or invented the rapes that they reported to police. Among men, underclassmen and participants of team sports (rather than individual-oriented sports) were more likely to subscribe to rape myths. Males participating in revenue-producing sports (e.g., football and basketball) were not more likely to support rape myths than were other athletes. While level of competition (Division I versus Division II) was not associated with rape myth acceptance among male athletes, rape myth acceptance was predicted by Division I status for female athletes. Other findings indicated that (a) female athletes were more likely to believe that nonathletes were less likely to be involved in date rapes than athletes, and (b) male athletes were more likely to believe that athletes were unfairly targeted in sexual assault or date rape incidents. Overall, the findings illustrate that college athletes are not a homogenous group and that prevention efforts can be designed and targeted accordingly.

Topics: Athletes; myths/stereotypes; prevention

Updated 08/01/07