NOTE: These summaries were written by SVPEP staff and are based on the original papers. The information available on this web site is provided as a public service and does not necessarily reflect the opinion of the U.S. Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, the Arizona Department of Health Services, or the University of Arizona.

Anooshian, L. (2005). Violence and aggression in the lives of homeless children: A review. Aggression & Violent Behavior, 10, 129-152. [Posted August 2006.]

Key Points: Intervention programs for homeless children and families must address violence and aggressions to be effective.

Abstract: Homeless children are exposed to violence in many ways. Other than the inherent danger of living on the street, homeless children are often exposed to violence in relation to the experience of their homeless mothers. Homeless women report extraordinary levels of violence in their lives. Many women become homeless as a result of domestic violence, making it likely that their children have witnessed abuse from, or have been abused themselves by, an absent parent. In addition, homeless children may experience ongoing violence in their relationship with a homeless parent. There are many consequences of violence in the lives of homeless children and their families, the most pervasive of which is social isolation. Other consequences include behavior problems, aggression with peers, rejection, lack of trust, and many other issues related to poor parenting.

Multiple factors related to homelessness and violence intersect in the lives of homeless children, and many theories of youth violence can be related to these factors (which are reviewed in this article).

Topics: Adolescent/high school; underserved populations

Arellano, C., Kuhn, J., & Chavez, E. L. (1997). Psychosocial correlates of sexual assault among Mexican American and White non-Hispanic adolescent females. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 19, 446-460.

A sample of 1,121 Mexican American and White non-Hispanic adolescent females were surveyed in order to examine the rates and correlates of sexual abuse in both groups. Psychosocial characteristics of those reporting sexual abuse (mean age 16.51 years) were compared to those reporting no sexual assault history (mean age 16.57 years). The results indicated that White non-Hispanic adolescents were twice as likely to report sexual assault as compared to Mexican American adolescents. Although rates of sexual assault appeared to differ across ethnicity, ethnicity did not seem to effect the relationship between sexual assault and psychosocial outcomes of victims. In general, sexual assault victims reported more social isolation, emotional distress, and more atypical behavior, including drug and/or alcohol use. Sexual assault victims also reported problems with school adjustment and choice of friends. In addition, they were more likely to come from homes with parental substance use and family conflict.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; effects; racial/ethnic differences

Avery-Leaf, S., Cascardi, M., O’Leary, K., & Cano, A. (1997). Efficacy of a dating violence prevention program on attitudes justifying aggression. Journal of Adolescent Health, 21, 11-17.

This paper discusses the value of a five-session dating violence prevention curriculum by comparing pre- and posttreatment differences in attitudes concerning dating violence among 193 high school students. Students taking health classes were randomly assigned either to the treatment condition or the control condition. Students in the treatment condition were exposed to a communication skills-based violence prevention program designed to address courtship aggression as a social and psychological issue. The Modified Conflict Tactics scale (MCTS), the Justification of Interpersonal Violence questionnaire (AIV), the Justification of Dating Jealousy and Violence scale (JDV), and the Social Desirability scale (SDS) were administered to all participants. Results revealed that within the treatment group there were significant changes in attitudes concerning dating aggression. Specifically, attitudes concerning justification of male-to-female dating aggression and female-to-male dating aggression were affected in that treatment subjects were less accepting of dating violence during an argument at the postprogram evaluation stage. The authors suggest that more sensitive measures of attitudes concerning dating violence (i.e., AIV and JDV) may be necessary since one-half to two-thirds of the students during the preprogram assessment already felt that physical violence is never justifiable during an argument. Overall, changes in attitudes among participants suggest that this type of curriculum may be a useful tool for prevention of dating aggression.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; curriculum; evaluation, prevention

Basile, K. C., Black, M. C., Simon, T. R., Arias, I., Brener, N. D., & Saltzman, L. E. (2006). The association between self-reported lifetime history of forced sexual intercourse and recent health-risk behaviors: Findings from the 2003 National Youth Risk Behavior Survey. Journal of Adolescent Health, 39, 752.e1-752.e7. [Posted January 2007.]

Key Points: In a nationally representative sample of 13,080 high school students, 1 in 8 girls and 1 in 16 boys reported a history of forced sexual intercourse. Female and male victims were more likely to also have experienced recent dating violence and engage in health risk behaviors compared to non-victims.

Abstract: This study used data from the 2003 Youth Risk Behavior Survey. Students provided information on a range of health risk behaviors.  Both female and male victims of forced sex were more likely than non-victims to have been physically abused by a dating partner and to have considered or attempted suicide in the previous 12 months. Female and male victims were more likely to have engaged in recent unhealthy eating behaviors and substance abuse.  Because the survey asked about only one type of sexual violence (forced intercourse), it is likely that the rates of sexual victimization were higher than reported in the study. The researchers recommend increasing both primary and secondary prevention efforts to reduce the harm of sexual violence.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; prevalence; risk

Bergman, L. (1992). Dating violence among high school students. Social Work, 37, 21-27.

This study estimates the proportion of high school students who have experienced physical, sexual, or severe (sexual and physical) violence in dating relationships. This study also determined how gender, age, grade point average, dating frequency, age at which dating began, and number of dating partners were correlated with high school dating violence. Students from three Midwestern high schools participated in the study. One in four females in the study reported experiencing severe violence. The majority of victims did not report the violence. Number of dating partners was the most significant indicator of violence, with grade point average and dating frequency being the next highest predictors.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; prevalence; risk

Berkowitz, A. D. (2002). Fostering men's responsibility for preventing sexual assault. In P. A. Schewe (Ed.), Preventing violence in relationships: Interventions across the lifespan (pp. 163-196). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

The author writes that for effective sexual assault prevention men must look at their own potential for violence as well as taking a stand against the violence of other men. He further asserts that men must take responsibility for preventing sexual assault because most sexual violence is perpetrated by men against women, children, and other men. Although only a minority of men are sexually violent, all men are part of the culture/environment that allows other men to perpetrate violence. The chapter offers an overview of issues involved in working with men to encourage taking the responsibility for sexual assault prevention. The chapter also suggests a philosophy for rape prevention programming, provides a model for prevention education programs, reviews promising programs and strategies, and includes recommendations for future program development. The chapter's main focus is on the prevention of sexual assault perpetrated by men or boys in college and high school settings.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; college; curriculum; prevention; male-female relations

Brown, J., L'Engle, K., Pardun, C., Guang, G., Kenneavy, K., & Jackson, C. (2006). Sexy media matter: Exposure to sexual content in music, movies, television, and magazines predicts black and white adolescents' sexual behavior. Pediatrics, 117, 1018-1027. [Posted September 2006.]

Key Points: Media is more likely to influence the sexual behavior of white adolescents than black adolescents.

Abstract: This article reports the findings of a longitudinal study of 1,017 adolescents regarding their media use. The study found that white adolescents exposed to sexual content in music, movies, television, and magazines increased their sexual activity and were at higher risk of engaging in early sexual intercourse. Black adolescents were less influenced by the media. Instead, black adolescents were more influenced by their perceptions of their parent's expectations and the sexual behavior of their peers.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; media/internet

Chisholm, J. F. (2006). Cyberspace violence against girls and adolescent females. Annals of New York Academy of Science, 1087, 74-89. [Posted April 2007.]

Key Points: Youth are often not psychologically equipped to protect themselves from bullying and exploitation online. Most adults are not aware of the risks to which young people are exposed through electronic communication.

Abstract: This article summarized types of “cyberviolence” (online bullying and other forms of exploitation). The ability to send messages anonymously and instantly through text messaging or email has created a new set of potential benefits and dangers for young people. Online culture evolves rapidly and can vary dramatically by age group. Adults who are not as technologically savvy as youth may not be aware of bullying and other damaging online behavior and thus not able to protect young people from online dangers.

Several projects working to prevent or mitigate victimization are presented. The author recommended that research be done to examine the effects of online socializing on adolescent development, and how the Internet continues to change patterns of communication. She also recommended training for mental health practitioners who work with youth to recognize signs of online victimization.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; media/Internet; prevention

Close, S. (2005). Dating violence prevention in middle school and high school youth. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 18, 2-9.

This paper addresses the current need to examine and prevent dating violence among middle school and high school adolescents. The author outlines the problem of perpetration and victimization as resulting from issues such as poor conflict resolution and social immaturity. Furthermore, the incidence of dating violence, the etiology of abusive behavior, risk factors, gender differences, and prevention/intervention programs are discussed thereby highlighting the significance of dating violence among adolescents as a growing public health concern.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; male-female relations; prevention

Darves-Bornoz, J., Choquet, M., Ledoux, S., Gasquet, I., & Manfredi, R. (1998). Gender differences in symptoms of adolescents reporting sexual assault. Social Psychiatry & Psychiatric Epidemiology, 33, 111-117.

While the sexual assault of children and adolescents is widely studied, there has been a lack of research examining issues related to male victims. This study reports on a nationwide survey of school-age adolescents in France. In all, 121 boys and 344 girls reported having been sexually assaulted (mean age 15.4 years). Results indicated that girls exhibited more somatic symptoms and mood disorders while boys more frequently demonstrated behavioral symptoms such as running away, suicide attempts, violent outbursts, and substance use.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; effects; male rape

Feiring, C., Deblinger, E., Hoch-Espada, A., & Haworth, T. (2002). Romantic relationship aggression and attitudes in high school students: The role of gender, grade, and attachment and emotional styles. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 31, 373-385.

Intimate partner violence can occur across the lifespan. The purpose of this study was to examine the role of relationship aggression across grades 9 through 12 from three high schools in Philadelphia. The study focused on attitudes that increase the potential for relationship aggression, gender and grade differences involved in the likelihood of aggression occurring, and the roles that attachment relational style and emotional style may play in promoting or preventing relationship aggression. Of the 254 adolescents recruited for participation from health education classes, 160 were girls and 94 were boys. Measures used included questionnaires concerning relationship aggression behaviors, relationship attitudes, attachment styles, and emotional styles. Certain gender and grade differences were found to be significant. For example, girls were more likely to report using physical aggression while boys were more accepting of aggression in relationships. In addition, older students were more likely than younger students to have experienced emotional abuse within a romantic relationship. Additional differences are discussed and clinical implications for school-based intervention programs are reviewed.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; male-female relations; perpetration; prevalence

Feltey, K., Ainslie, J., & Geib, A. (1991). Sexual coercion attitudes among high school students: The influence of gender and rape education. Youth and Society, 23, 229-250

The perception of sexual coercion as justifiable under certain conditions and what variables affect these attitudes is the focus of this study. The sample was drawn from a high school population. Pre- and posttests were administered to students who attended a date rape prevention (DRP) presentation. The student's demographic information was gathered and a questionnaire was given dealing with the subject’s sexual activity. This study suggests that date rape prevention programs should include the dynamics of gender socialization, the structured inequality between men and women, and the interrelationship between sex and violence. In addition, such awareness should be developed early in the adolescents’ lives.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; curriculum; prevention

Fineran, S. (2002). Sexual harassment between same-sex peers: Intersection of mental health, homophobia, and sexual violence in schools. Social Work, 47, 65-74.

This article defines peer sexual harassment by drawing upon a multi-perspective model that incorporates legal and historical elements. For example, the authors discuss major court decisions that have defined and redefined sexual harassment within both educational and work environment settings as well as across age levels and between same-sex peers. Prior studies indicating the prevalence of sexual harassment are described, followed by a detailed description of the legal evolution and response to sexual harassment within educational and workplace settings. Mental health implications for victims of sexual harassment are discussed. Furthermore, school policy implications are reviewed, including the need to educate students as well as school personnel in identifying sexual harassment. The authors conclude by providing recommendations for mental health practitioners as well as describing factors requiring consideration when counseling students who experience sexual harassment from same-sex peers.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; harassment; legal responses

Fisher, M., Florsheim, P., & Sheetz, J. (2005). That's not my problem: Convergence and divergence between self- and other-identified problems among homeless adolescents. Child & Youth Care Forum, 34, 393-403. [Posted July 2006.]

Key Points: When working with homeless youth, an initial focus on substance abuse or trauma-related issues may be counterproductive.

Abstract: This study examined the difference between homeless youth's self-identifed behavioral and mental health needs, and the needs that mental professionals tend to focus on. Forty homeless youth were administered standard psychological measures and were given a face-to-face interview. The study found that issues such as past victimization, symptoms of mental illness, substance abuse and other high-risk behaviors were generally not thought-of as problems by homeless youth. Most youth described relationship problesms as their primary concern, followed by work or school related issues. These youth rarely sought assistance from mental health professionals, but were willing to talk to counselors about problems they self-identifed as being important.

Topics: Adolescent/high school, underserved populations

Fitzgerald, M.M., Danielson, C.K., Saunders, B., & Kilpatrick, D.G. (2007).Youth victimization: Implications for prevention, intervention, and public policy. The Prevention Researcher, 14, 3-7. [Posted August 2007]

Key Points: Policies and practices are needed to minimize the harm of youth victimization by encouraging assessment, targeted prevention, and treatment interventions.  

Abstract: The authors review national prevalence rates of youth victimization, including: sexual, emotional or physical abuse; witnessing domestic or community violence; property crime; and excessive punishment. They note gender and race/ethnicity differences in prevalence rates as well as mental health effects. Specific recommendations for assessing risk and resiliency factors as well as screening for victimization in clinical settings are given. The authors discuss the importance of targeted interventions for specific groups, and urge adoption of an ecological model. Finally, the authors discuss how public and organizational policies can help decrease the impact of victimization and increase the availability of supportive services for youth and their families.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; effects; medical response; prevalence; prevention; racial/ethnic differences

Forbes, G., Adams-Curtis, L., Pakalka, A., & White, K. (2006). Dating aggression, sexual coercion, and aggression-supporting attitudes among college men as a function of participation in aggressive high school sports. Violence Against Women, 12, 441-455. [Posted September 2006.]

Key Points: Participation in aggressive sports is associated with attitudes that support violence against women, and violent acts against women. This study does not, however, imply causal relationships between sports and violence against women (i.e. that aggressive sports cause men to be more violent, or that violent men choose to play aggressive sports).

Abstract: This article describes the findings from a study of 147 college men, in which 115 men reported that they had participated in 1 or more sports in high school. Of these 115 men, 101 men had played an "aggressive" sport (football, basketball, wrestling, or soccer). Relative to a comparison group of 46 men, the men who had participated in an aggressive sport in high school reported that they used more psychological and physical aggression, and more sexual coercion in their college dating relationships. These men also scored higher on measures of Acceptance of Violence, Hostility Toward Women, Rape Myth Acceptance, and Homonegativity scales.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; athletes/fraternities

Foshee, V., Bauman, K., Arriaga, X., Helms R., Koch, G., & Linder, G. (1998). An evaluation of Safe Dates, an adolescent dating violence prevention program. American Journal of Public Health, 88, 45-50.

Fourteen public schools in a rural county were randomly assigned to treatment or control conditions. Of the students involved, 1,886 subjects completed pretest and 1,700 subjects completed posttest measures. Members of the treatment group took part in the "Safe Dates" school curriculum and community activities. Those in the control schools were only presented with community activities. At the time of the posttest, those in the treatment schools reported less psychological abuse, less sexual violence, and less violence perpetrated against the current dating partner than those in control schools. Those reporting no dating violence at Time 1 indicated there was less initiation of abuse in treatment than in control schools at Time 2. Those reporting dating violence at Time 1 indicated there was less psychological abuse and sexual violence perpetration occurring in treatment schools post intervention. The problems associated with collecting posttest data directly after an intervention are discussed. The authors indicate that they are in the process of collecting data for a 1-year follow-up to address these limitations.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; curriculum; evaluation

Freedner, N., Freed, L., Yang, W., & Austin, S. (2002). Dating violence among gay, lesbian, and bisexual adolescents: Results from a community survey. Journal of Adolescent Health, 31, 469-474.

A growing concern within the public health domain is the impact that intimate partner violence is having not only among adults, but increasingly among adolescents as well. This study examined dating violence patterns among gay, lesbian, bisexual, and heterosexual adolescents sampled from a youth rights rally in the Northeast in 2000. The questionnaire included items concerning demographic variables (e.g., gender, sexual orientation, age, ethnicity, and living situation) as well as items adapted from the Massachusetts Youth Risk Behavior Survey, Victimization and Dating Relationships Survey, and Conflict Tactics Scale. Results revealed that bisexual males and females were most likely to be threatened with outing by a partner. Additionally, bisexual males were more likely to report some type of abuse while bisexual females had greater odds of reporting sexual abuse when compared with the heterosexual adolescents. Dating violence as a phenomenon among adolescents clearly requires further investigation.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; lesbian, gay, bisexual & transgender; prevalence

Gray, H., & Foshee, V. (1997). Adolescent dating violence: differences between one-sided and mutually violent profiles. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 12, 126-141.

This study investigated prevalence and severity of adolescent dating violence. Participants included 185 students (from 6th to 12th grades), who responded to a questionnaire about dating violence and were classified as victim-only, perpetrator-only, or mutually-violent. Results indicated that most dating violence prevention and treatment programs are based on the one-sided violent relationship. However, the most common profile for dating violence is the mutually-violent relationship. Limitations of this study included: the omission of gender differences in severity as well as consequences of, reactions to, and initiation of physical violence. An additional limitation involved not accounting for sexual violence perpetrated by males and subsequent female use of physical violence.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; perpetration

Hanson, R., Kievit, L., Saunders, B., Smith, D., Kilpatrick, D., Resnick, H., & Ruggiero, K. (2003). Correlates of adolescent reports of sexual assault: Findings from the National Survey of Adolescents. Child Maltreatment, 8, 261-272.

Studies on the factors that lead to child disclosure of sexual abuse reveal mixed results. The purpose of this study was to determine which demographic variables and sexual abuse incident characteristics were related to disclosure. Another purpose of this study was to determine whether correlates of sexual abuse disclosure differed by gender and race/ethnicity. Data from 4,023 adolescents was obtained through a national probability telephone survey. Measures included penetration and nonpenetration sexual assault, relationship to the perpetrator, degree of life threat, physical injury, victim substance use, disclosure of sexual assault to anyone, and knowledge of any formal reports made regarding the sexual assault. Results indicated that 8.1% of respondent adolescents had experienced a sexual assault. Regarding disclosure, about two thirds of the victims reported that they had told someone else about the sexual assault and about one third of these instances had also been formally reported. For all adolescent victims, use of substances did not reduce the likelihood of disclosure, and victims assaulted by a relative were the most likely to disclose. Girls and European Americans were more likely to disclose than boys and African Americans, respectively. However, among European Americans, gender did not influence disclosure. On the other hand, African American females were 7 times more likely to disclose than African American males were. Also, for girls and European Americans only, sustaining an injury during the sexual assault reduced the likelihood of disclosure. While, for African Americans penetration assault was associated with disclosure, life threat was associated with disclosure for European Americans. Due to their low rates of disclosure, these results indicate that careful assessment of sexual assault among African American children and boys may be particularly important. Additional research investigating correlates of sexual assault for other ethnic groups (e.g., Asians, Hispanics, and Native Americans) is also suggested.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; disclosure; racial/ethnic differences

Herrera, V., & McCloskey, L. (2003). Sexual abuse, family violence, and female delinquency: Findings from a longitudinal study. Violence and Victims, 18, 319-335.

The increasing involvement of female offenders within the criminal justice system is developing into a serious public policy issue. As such, understanding the predictors of criminal offending among girls and women is gaining focus in research. Previous studies have demonstrated that delinquency is often associated with a history of childhood physical or sexual victimization. The participants in this research were involved in a longitudinal study on marital violence and child development from 1990 – 1997. Mother-daughter pairs (n = 141) were interviewed about marital violence, child physical abuse, and child sexual abuse at Time 1. At Time 2, mothers and daughters were interviewed using additional measures to assess acting out (e.g., running away or violence against parents) as well as non-violent and violent delinquency. Results support the notion that many girls select acting out as a method of avoiding, escaping, or preventing abuse within the home. Furthermore, sexual abuse was found to be the strongest predictor of violent and nonviolent delinquency. The authors propose the need for juvenile justice systems to take into account the predictors that place females on trajectories involving acting out and criminal behavior.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; effects; survivors

Hilton, N., Harris, G., & Rice, M. (1998). On the validity of self-reported rates of interpersonal violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 13, 58-72.

Many researchers assume that prevalence and incidence estimates of sexual violence are valid and can be extrapolated or interpolated to different time frames. The authors assessed three studies that contained a total of 687 high school students. Respondents gave absolute estimates of nonphysical, physical, and sexual aggression during the past 1 month, 6 months, and 12 months that did not differ significantly. Estimates were sensitive to item severity, sex of perpetrator, and sex of victim but were insensitive to the time period over which they were asked to estimate. This suggests that self-reports of interpersonal violence may be strongly affected by other factors in addition to the number of times the events have actually occurred.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; disclosure; statistics

Hilton, N., Harris, G., Rice, M., Krans, T., & Lavigne, S. (1998). Antiviolence education in high schools: Implementation and evaluation. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 13, 726-742.

This study examined the effects of a knowledge-based intervention administered to 350 eleventh grade students. Variables addressed included a measure of knowledge retained from the intervention, a measure of date rape attitudes, and a measure of self-reported physical and sexual aggression perpetrated by peers. Students chose to attend two 1-hour workshops from six available workshops. Analysis of their responses revealed results that may contribute toward improvements in future school-based prevention education programs. For example, classroom workshops were able to convey the most information. However, attrition of membership at the workshops, especially by students who scored low during the pretest, may account for the higher scores during the posttest phase. As such, the authors suggest that antiviolence education in high schools ought to involve training students to recognize warning signs of violence, provide them with guidance for terminating violent relationships, and aim to improve the selection of high-risk students for treatment.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; curriculum; evaluation, risk

Himelein, M., Vogel, R., & Wachowiak, D. (1994). Nonconsensual sexual experiences in pre-college women: Prevalence and risk factors. Journal of Counseling & Development, 72, 411-415.

This article discusses the need for education and prevention programs to target younger audiences (secondary school age) and to revise the counseling needs for college-age victims. The objective of the author's research is to profile pre-college women's history of consensual and nonconsensual sexual experiences. They also examine the occurrence of child sexual abuse and consensual sexuality activity as potential risk factors for sexual victimization in dating. Implications for counselors are discussed.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; prevalence; prevention; risk

Houts, L. (2005). But was it wanted? Young women's first voluntary sexual intercourse. Journal of Family Issues, 26, 1082-1102.

The goal of the study was to examine predictors of the wantedness of women's first sexual intercourse. The author used a subsample of 574 women, between ages 15 to 24, from the National Survey of Family Growth (NSFG). The NSFG collected information on reproductive health and women's general health using computer assisted personal interviews. Almost a third (28%) of the women reported that their first sex was not really wanted. The mean age of first sexual intercourse was about 16 years old. Being in a more committed relationship and engaging in first sex at a later age were associated with increased wantedness. Women who had mothers with higher education also reported increased wantedness of first sex. Differences in levels of wantedness among Black and White women were due primarily to differences in the characteristics of first sex. Differences between Hispanic and White women were marginally significant even after controlling for first sex variables. The findings provide evidence that voluntary consent for sexual intercourse is not always equated with a wanted experience among young women.

Topics: Adolescent/high school

Howard, D., & Wang, M. (2005). Psychosocial correlates of U.S. adolescents who report a history of forced sexual intercourse. Journal of Adolescent Health, 36, 372-379.

This study examined the psychological and behavioral correlates of forced sexuality among high school students (N = 13, 601). Participants were given the 2001 national school-based Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS). Results showed that 7.7% of high school adolescents had experienced forced sexual violence. Moreover, girls reported a 10.2% lifetime prevalence whereas boys reported a 5.1% lifetime prevalence of forced sex. Additional results yielded associations between a history of forced sexual violence and suicidal thoughts and behaviors as well as substance abuse and other risky behaviors. The authors emphasize the need for clinical applications of these findings and recognize the issue of forced sexual intercourse among adolescents as a growing public health concern.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; effects; prevalence

Hyde, J. (2005). From home to street: Understanding young people's transitions into homelessness. Journal of Adolescence, 28, 171-183. [Posted August 2006.]

Key Points: Service providers need to recognize the agency of young homeless people in order to work with them effectively.

Abstract: Fifty homeless youth in Los Angeles, California, were interviewed concerning why they left home and become homeless. Although abuse and negelect at home played a part in the decision for many of these youths, they maintained a sense of agency concerning their decision to leave. Service providers often portray homeless youth as victims without recognizing their agency and ability to make decisions for themselves.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; underserved populations

Irwin, C., & Rickert, V. (2005). Coercive sexual experiences during adolescence and young adulthood: A public health problem. Journal of Adolescent Health, 36, 359-361.

This editorial presents an overview of the articles published in its respective journal, the Journal of Adolescent Health (volume 36). As such, Irwin and Rickert summarize studies documenting patterns and prevalence of sexual violence among adolescents and young adults, risk factors associated with sexual violence among adolescents, treatment issues, the public health approach, prevention programs, and the need for screening of intimate partner violence.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; prevalence; risk

Isely, P., Busse, W., & Isely, P. (1998). Sexual assault of males in late adolescence: A hidden phenomenon. Professional School Counseling, 2, 153-160.

Recently a small body of research has shown that adolescent males, 16 years of age and older, are at risk of sexual assault. The sexual assault of adolescent males, however, has not been thoroughly explored. Much like sexually abused children, these survivors display significant emotional difficulties as a consequence of the sexual assault. An awareness of this type of abuse may assist in the early identification and treatment of this unacknowledged population.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; male rape; underserved populations

Johnson, R., Rew, L., & Kouzekanani, K. (2006). Gender differences in victimized homeless adolescents. Adolescence, 41, 40-53. [Posted July 2006.]

Key Points:
When working with homeless youth, identification of abuse history can be critical in developing effective interventions. This study indicates that young men and boys who have been sexually abused can benefit from learning assertive communication skills, as other studies have shown with young women and girls.

Abstract:
This study sought to determine how gender and sexual abuse histor influence cognitive-perceptual and behavioral factors associated with the sexual health practices of homeless adolescents. The investigators conducted a secondary analysis of data collected for a study of sexual health practices of homeless adolescents, using a sample of 414 participants. They found that females reporting a history of sexual abuse had a shorter future time perspective that females who did not report abuse, indicating a reduced belief that the future has a structure, can be controlled and is predictable. Males who did not report a history of sexual abuse had higher perceived health status than abused females, and were more assertive communicators than abused males.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; underserved populations

Kershner, R. (1996). Adolescent attitudes about rape. Adolescence, 31, 29-33.

High school students (N = 122) were questioned about their attitudes toward rape in order to develop a rape prevention curriculum. Students revealed conservative attitudes about gender roles, rape myths, and victim issues. The study concluded that by focusing on sociocultural aspects of rape, students can learn to identify what nonconsensual sex looks like, reject common myths about rape and rape victims, and endorse a more egalitarian belief system. It is posited that this, in turn, will lead to a decrease in the incidence of rape.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; curriculum; myths/stereotypes

Kidd, S. & Scrimenti, K. (2004). Evaluating child and youth homelessness. Evaluation Review, 28, 325-341. [Posted August 2006.]

Key Points: This article presents an effective means of surveying homeless youth in an urban setting.

Abstract: This article describes an extensive effort to survey homeless youth in New Haven, Connecticut. Many issues related to surveying homeless youth are discussed. The findings of the survey suggest that approximately 1,688 children are homeless in New Haven each year, which is proportionally similar to larger urban areas. Their mothers are usually single with one or two children, and face significant difficult with meeting their most essential needs.

The strengths of the survey design used were its thoroughness and cost efficiency. From conducting the survey, the authors determined that accessing homeless youth on their own in small urban settings is more difficuly that in large urban setting. This is because fewer youth-oriented services are available in smaller cities.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; prevalence

Kilpatrick, D., Acierno, R., Saunders, B., Resnick, H., Best, C., & Schnurr, P. (2000). Risk factors for adolescent substance abuse and dependence: Data from a national sample. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 19-30.

This paper reports the results from the National Survey of Adolescents (NSA). The survey (funded by the National Institute of Justice) used a probability sample of 4,023 adolescents aged 12–17 years who were contacted by telephone about their victimization experiences, their substance use, and their families' substance use. Specifically, the data collected included the following variables: age, gender, race, nonexperimental alcohol use, nonexperimental marijuana and hard drug use, age of onset for nonexperimental substance use, sexual and/or physical assault, witnessed violence, familial alcohol problems, familial drug use, and substance abuse/dependence and PTSD (as determined by DSM-IV criteria). Results revealed that more than 10% of the 17-year-old participants demonstrated substance abuse/dependence at the time of the study. Of this group, 7% revealed marijuana abuse/dependence and 2% revealed hard drug abuse/dependence. The total sample of adolescents in the study demonstrated a prevalence of 4% for alcohol and marijuana abuse/dependence. Furthermore, witnessed violence increased the risk of substance use within the previous year. Although PTSD status was not associated with alcohol abuse/dependence, it did represent an increased risk for the use of marijuana and hard drug abuse/dependence. Furthermore, compared to Caucasians – and when controlled across variables measuring victimization, PTSD status, and familial substance abuse – African Americans were found to be at 1/3 the risk for substance abuse/dependence. Native Americans and Hispanics were similar to Caucasians on race-based risk for substance abuse/dependence. The study concludes by noting the potential impact of victimization experiences in increasing the risk of substance abuse/dependence among adolescents.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; alcohol; prevalence

Kim, K., Smith, P., & Palermiti, A. (1997). Conflict in childhood and reproductive development. Evolution and Human Behavior, 18, 109-142.

Belsky, Steinberg, and Draper (1991) hypothesized that a child's first 5 to 7 years in the family serve as a basis for the development of his or her reproductive strategies. It was predicted that stressors in the family environment are associated with late childhood behavioral problems and early onset of puberty. Less discriminate sexual behavior was associated with the early onset of puberty in girls and boys. The current research includes a cross-sectional self-report survey of 380 secondary school students aged 16–19 years from southern Italy. This report includes the current research as well as a review of previous research. The population of the current study has more conservative cultural values than populations of previous studies have. Therefore, direct comparison is limited.

Topics: Adolescent/high school

Kuhn, J., Arellano, C., & Chavez, E. (1998). Correlates of sexual assault in Mexican American and White non-Hispanic adolescent males. Violence & Victims, 13, 11-20.

Psychosocial and emotional variables were assessed for a sample of 1,385 Mexican American and White non-Hispanic adolescent males. Among those sampled, 54 males reported being sexually assaulted one or more times. Adolescent male victims were on average more socially isolated, emotionally distressed, and socially maladjusted (e.g., they exhibited more behaviors such as lying and stealing). These males were also more likely to affiliate with deviant peers and to come from homes with substance use, compared to males who were not reporting sexual assault. Significant differences between Mexican American and White non-Hispanic assault victims were not found.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; male rape; racial/ethnic differences

Lacasse, A. & Mendelson, M. J. (2007). Sexual coercion among adolescents: Victims and perpetrators. Violence Against Women, 22, 424-437. [Posted April 2007.]

Key Points: In a small sample of students in Grades 8-11, sexist beliefs were associated with being a victim of sexual harassment or coercion among girls and with perpetrating sexual harassment or coercion among boys.

Abstract: Students in a suburban Quebec school were asked if other students had verbally harassed them, made non-coercive sexual contact (e.g., unwanted kissing) or attempted to obtain sexual favors using blackmail or force in the previous 3 months. They were also asked if they had perpetrated those acts on another student. The study included 37 students who reported being victimized and 21 who reported perpetrating the behavior. These groups were then compared with a matched control sample of students.

Female students who were victims (n=27) were more likely to endorse sexist attitudes than other girls; boys who were perpetrators were more likely to endorse sexist attitudes than other boys. All victims were more likely to use drugs and alcohol than controls or perpetrators. Both victims and perpetrators were involved with more deviant behaviors than controls.

Limitations of this study include: a small sample size; students were only asked about peer-related behaviors outside of romantic relationships, which may have resulted in underreporting of victimization; and the perceived severity of the experiences was not assessed.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; harassment; myths/stereotypes; perpetration

Lacasse, A., Purdy, K., Mendelson, M. (2003). The mixed company they keep: Potentially offensive sexual behaviours among adolescents. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 27, 532-540.

The focus of this study was an examination of how the gender composition of adolescent friendship networks impacts the incidence and tolerance of potentially sexually offensive behaviors among adolescents. Three main predictiostered to 324 high school students in Grades 8 and 11. The participants were mainly French-speaking Canadian Caucasians. The findings suggest that adolescents whose friendship networks consisted primarily of opposite-sex peers experienced more potentially sexually offensive behaviors than networks made up of same-sex peers. Additionally, boys tended to perpetrate the moderate behaviors, with girls more likely to be upset by such behaviors. The results duplicate prior research findings while also contributing additional insight into non-sexual adolescent peer relations. Confounds such as those presented by individual differences in sexual maturation are also discussed.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; harassment; male-female relations

Lanier, C. A. (2001). Rape-accepting attitudes: Precursors to or consequences of forced sex. Violence Against Women, 7, 876-885. [Posted April 2007.]

Key Points: Acceptance of rape myths predicted subsequent sexual aggression among a group of middle school and high school boys.

Abstract: This study sought to answer the questions: does rape-myth acceptance precede perpetration of sexual violence, or does the perpetrator justify their actions by adopting rape-accepting attitudes?

Boys from 14 middle schools and high schools in rural North Carolina were surveyed. They were asked if they had ever forced a date to have sex or forced a date to do something sexual. They were also asked to rate their agreement with common rape myths. One year later, 851 boys completed a second survey. Those who were more accepting of rape myths initially were more likely to report perpetration. Perpetration did not result in increased acceptance of rape myths.

This study suggested that curriculum targeting rape myth-accepting attitudes accepting of rape myths may reduce forced sex by adolescent males.

Some limitations of this study include: boys may have been reluctant to self-identify as perpetrators, fearing that they could be identified; they may have indicated a lower acceptance of rape myths than they really felt; and they were not asked to define what “doing something sexual” meant to them.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; evaluation; myths/stereotypes; perpetration; prevention

Lankenau, S., Clatts, M., Welle, D., Goldsamt, L., & Gwadz, M. (2005). Street careers: Homelessness, drug use, and sex work among young men who have sex with men (YMSM). International Journal of Drug Policy, 16, 10-18. [Posted August 2006.]

Key Points: Effective social policies and interventions will recognize that homelessness, drug involvement, and sex work are interrelated aspects of the street economy.

Abstract: This article describes ethnographic interviews with ten young, homeless men who have sex with men in New York City. It describes the "street capital" these men have accumulated as they have participated in the street economy as sex workers, and the "street competencies" these men have learned while surviving on the street.

The article argues that these men began to accumulate "street capital" at an early age through experiences in various institutions, including their family, foster care, schools, hospitals, and jails. Combined with homelessness, different types of street capital combined with street competencies to result in street careers as sex workers participating in the street economy.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; lesbian, gay, bisexual & transgender; underserved populations

Leitenberg, H., & Saltzman, H. (2003). College women who had sexual intercourse when they were underage minors (13–15): Age of their male partners, relation to current adjustment, and statutory rape implications. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research & Treatment, 15, 135-147.

Previous research has argued that the majority of children born to teenage girls have adult fathers. These statistics have prompted more rigid enforcement of statutory rape laws aimed at protecting teenage women. However, recent studies more closely examining the age difference between teenage and young adult sexual partners have revealed that they are closer to the same age than previous studies have suggested. The purpose of this research was to investigate age differences between teenage females (who engaged in sexual intercourse as underage minors) and their partners, thereby further elucidating the long-term effects of engaging in sexual intercourse as an underage minor with an older partner. The participants in this study were 1,439 college students who were asked to complete a survey which measured the participants’ sexual intercourse engagement between the ages of 13 and 15, their current psychological adjustment, and current reports of sexual satisfaction. Results revealed that 24% of the participants had reported engaging in consensual sexual intercourse when they were between the ages of 13–15. Most of the participants reported that their partner was between 1 to 4 years older at the time of intercourse. Females who reported having intercourse at the age of 13 experienced more psychological distress than those women who reported having intercourse at the age of 14 or 15 years. Lastly, the age of the partner was not correlated to reports of psychological stress or current sexual satisfaction. The authors conclude by recommending that the legal system should incorporate findings on teenage sexual behavior into the actual enforcement of statutory rape laws. That is to say, bypassing the reality of what many teenagers are actually doing will only cause many young adult males to be registered as sex offenders when they were actually “just somewhat older boyfriends” (p. 145).

Topics: Adolescent/high school; legal responses

Linz, D., Wilson, B., & Donnerstein, E. (1992). Sexual violence in the mass media: Legal solutions, warnings, and mitigation through education. Journal of Social Issues, 48, 145-171.

Adolescent exposure to violence in the mass media may result in detrimental societal effects. Research suggests that exposure to violent materials, whether or not they are sexually explicit, results in less sensitivity toward victims of sexual violence. Three solutions to the problem are addressed. The solution of strengthening the obscenity laws was found to be ineffective because the laws focus on sexual explicitness and not violence. The film rating system was also found to be ineffective because it is found to be inconsistent with social science research on the effects of sexual violence. Finally the solution that holds the most promise is educational interventions directed to changing beliefs about rape and sexual violence. A program is presented that is based on prior research with college students.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; community attitudes/responses

Mattaini, M. A., & McGuire, M. S. (2006). Behavioral strategies for constructing nonviolent cultures with Youth: A review. Behavior Modification, 30, 184-224.

This article provides a brief review of the roots of youth violence at a social level. It describes the traits of effective and ineffective programs to address youth violence, and focuses on two types of intervention strategies it considers to be promising and potentially effective. The first type is universal skill training with youth, for which the article provides an analysis of several programs using universal skill training. Each program description offers and a summary of its strengths and weaknesses. Such programmatic analysis is also provided for the second intervention type, which is the use of universal ecological based strategies in interventions. Such interventions are designed to change cultural practice in cultural networks.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; prevention; theory

Maxwell, C., Robinson, A., & Post, L. (2003). The nature and predictors of sexual victimization and offending among adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 32, 465-477.

Many studies have been conducted investigating the factors surrounding adult sexual assault perpetration and victimization. Recently, studies on young adults and adolescents have revealed that alarmingly high rates of sexual assault victims are under the age of 18 years old. The purpose of this study was to investigate the prevalence and nature of sexual aggression among adolescents. Participants included 476 students from two high schools who volunteered to answer a self-report survey. This consisted of several measures: the RAPE Attitudes Scale, the Attitudes Toward Victims Scale, and the Legal Knowledge Scale. In addition, questions concerning demographics and dating behaviors were also included. Analyses of their responses indicated that almost half of the female students reported experiencing some form of sexual aggression and one-third of the male students reported having engaged in some form of sexual aggression. Additional differences across demographic variables were found to be significant. Among these, certain risk factors were evident; in particular, the likelihood of reporting victimization was higher among students who reported more frequent dating during the past month and/or dating various people during the previous six months. Furthermore, women not planning on attending college reported higher rates of sexual assault victimization. Legal knowledge about rape and positive attitudes towards women were correlated with lower levels of sexual assault perpetration among high school men. Implications for school-based prevention programs are reviewed.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; prevalence; prevention; perpetration; risk

McCuller, W., Sussman, S., Holiday, K., Craig, S., & Dent, C. (2002). Tracking procedures for locating high-risk youth. Evaluation & the Health Professions, 25, 345. [Posted July 2006.]

Key Points: Tracking high-risk youth is very difficult. Even with access to a complete range of personal information, intense resources and dedicated tracking staff, less than half of a sample can be expected to be accessible over five years.

Abstract: Describes the tracking procedures used by Project Towards No Drug Abuse (PTND), which followed high-risk youth over a 5 1/2 year period from 1994 to 2000. PTND used a randomized, multiwave experimental design at 21 continuation high schools located in five counties in Southern Arizona. The project consisted of self-report assessments at baseline, followed by a three week educational treatment program delivered to an experimental group, with an immediate posttest and one-year follow-up. Each year of the program constituted a single wave, with 1,861 participants over five waves. Prior-wave participants were contacted during each one-year follow-up round.

PTND developed a tracking database and had a dedicated staff member to serve as the tracking coordinator, as well as data entry staff and a database manager. Every consented participant filled-out a data card. Data cards recorded: full name, social security number, driver's license number, two contact persons (including address and telephone), family or permanent address, telephone number, grade, and birthdate. Information provided was checked against school records, which also provided any missing information. Participants were contacted for additional information if needed.

At annual follow-ups, participants were mailed a letter informing them that they would be contact by PTND staff by phone. Participants who were unreachable by mail or phone were pursued using various tracking methods. These included:

* 411 telephone directory assistance.
* Multiple mail-out forms (hoping that participants would be reached at forwarding addresses). Mail-out forms included: pre-call mailing, birthday mailing, holiday letter, thank-you letter, and session summaries.
* Internet "people finder" search engines.
* Haines Criss-Cross reverse directory service.
* Home visits by field interviewers.
* County Registrar (voting records accessed via a participant consent form).
* Department of Motor Vehicles records.
* TRW/Experian address database from credit records.
* US Search (a person locator firm that uses TRW and social security information).
* A toll-free line that participants could call to update their information.

As a result of these intense efforts, 35% of base (first wave) participants completed a 5th wave follow-up survey. By collapsing across the 4th and 5th waves, 46% of the total sample was retained. Anecdotally, participants were more cooperative after the survey instrument was shortened from 45 minutes to a 25 minutes.

Topics: Adolescent/high school, underserved populations

Miller, K., Melnick, M., Farrell, M., Sabo, D., & Barnes, G. (2006). Jocks, gender, binge drinking, and adolescent violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21, 105-120. [Posted October 2006.]

Key Points: Not all school athletes identify as “jocks,” and not all jocks are involved in school sports. This study found that being a jock was associated with higher levels of violent behavior. The most violence was found among white male jocks who did not participate in sports.

Abstract: The Family and Adolescent Study gathered information on Western New York adolescents in six waves between 1989-1996. This article was based on a sample of 608 male and female adolescents from that study. The researchers looked at how 4 characteristics (jock identity, athletic participation, binge drinking, and gender) were associated with committing violence within the family or outside the family. They found that: males who identified as jocks but did not play sports were involved in more frequent violence outside the family than athlete jocks; jocks and non-jocks committed similar levels of family violence; binge-drinking was associated with family violence only among non-jocks; and females who identified as jocks were not more violent than non-jock females.

Limits to the study included a lack of specific information about the types of violence committed (for example, sexual violence, gang violence, or bullying). Adolescents were not asked to define what they meant by the term “jock.” Athletes were not separated out by sport, so differences between participants in individual and team sports or contact and no-contact sports could not be determined.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; athletes/fraternities

Molidor, C., & Tolman R. (1998). Gender and contextual factors in adolescent dating violence. Violence Against Women, 4, 180-194.

High school students (N = 635) were surveyed about the frequency, severity, and reaction to dating violence they had experienced. Although the overall frequency of violence did not differ by gender, females reported higher levels of severe violence, more severe physical outcomes, and greater levels of emotional distress in response to their experience with dating violence. This study also indicated that almost half of all dating violence occurs on school grounds. High school students who experienced dating violence were more likely to disclose the incident to their peers, if they told anyone. This study also indicated that while the frequency of violence was the same between genders, the predictors and severity of violence differed between them. The authors discuss implications for intervention.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; effects; male-female relations

O'Keefe, M., & Treister, L. (1998). Victims of dating violence among high school students: Are the predictors different for males and females? Violence Against Women, 4, 195-223.

This study examines whether predictors of dating violence differ for males and females. Predictors are grouped according to three categories: sociodemographic, contextual, and situational. The sociodemographic category includes ethnicity and family SES. The contextual domain is comprised of distal predictors including: experiencing physical aggression, accepting violence, inter-parental aggression, community and school violence, interpersonal control, and self-esteem. Situational predictors are proximal and include: relationship satisfaction, relationship seriousness, length of dating relationships, number of dating relationships, relationship conflict, and inflicting dating violence. Separate analyses are conducted for males and females. Results indicate different patterns of predictors for males and females and that, while both sexes report similar motivations for engaging in dating violence, males report initiating dating violence more frequently (if equal responsibility was not declared). Results also indicate that the effects of the violence are more severe for females.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; male-female relations; perpetration; risk

Parrot, A. (1989). Acquaintance rape among adolescents: Identifying risk groups and intervention strategies. Journal of Social Work and Human Sexuality, 8, 47-60.

This article discusses various dimensions of acquaintance rape in adolescent and young adult populations, including frequency, patterns of occurrence, characteristics of assailants, and behaviors that place adolescents at risk of becoming victims. The authors address the need for victim counseling and discuss appropriate advocacy roles for the social worker, police, medical professionals, and the victim's family and friends.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; risk

Rew, L., Whittaker, T., Taylor-Seehafer, M., & Smith, L. (2005). Sexual health risks and protective resources in gay, lesbian, bisexual, and heterosexual homeless youth. Journal for Specialists in Pediatric Nursing, 10, 11-19. [Posted August 2006.]

Key Points: Services for homeless youth should be specific for both gender and sexual orientation.

Abstract: This article compares the sexual health risks taken by homeless youth who identify as gay, lesbian, or bi-sexual to those taken by homeless youth who identify as heterosexual. Survey data collected from 425 homeless adolescents between 16 and 20 years of age were analyzed.

More gay and lesbian youth reported sexual abuse, and being tested and treated for HIV than heterosexual youth. Gay and lesbian youth also scored lower on measures of assertive communication. Among gay, lesbian, and bi-sexual respondents, more males than females identified as homosexual and more females than males identified as bi-sexual.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; lesbian, gay, bisexual & transgender; underserved populations

Schwartz, M., O'Leary, S., & Kendziora, K. (1997). Dating aggression among high school students. Violence and Victims, 12, 294-305.

A sample of 228 (122 male and 106 female) high school students were surveyed to assess physical violence and aggression among dating partners. Links with parental aggression and justification of aggression during an argument were examined. In the total sample, 44% of the females and 16% of the males reported aggressive behavior against their partner in at least one incident, with the most popular form of aggression being pushing, grabbing, or shoving. Parental aggression was significantly predictive of male adolescent aggression but not predictive of female aggression. The results suggest distinctly different patterns of causation of dating aggression for males and females. Limitations of the study are discussed and some possible explanations for the results are addressed.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; prevalence

Silverman, J., Decker, M., Reed, E., Rothman, E., Hathaway, J., Raj, A., et al. (2006). Social norms & beliefs regarding sexual risk and pregnancy involvement among adolescent males treated for dating violence perpetration. Journal of Urban Health, 83, 723-735. [Posted October 2006.]

Key Points: Beliefs about normal sexual behavior of men and women should be addressed when developing programs to reduce relationship violence and sexual risk.

Abstract: The goal of this exploratory study was to generate hypotheses about the relationship between beliefs about sexual behavior and the practice of risky behaviors. Six focus groups were held with 34 young men aged 13-20 who were enrolled in dating violence programs because of actual abuse or concerns about their potential to abuse. Several major themes emerged from the groups. Participants believed that it was normal for men have multiple partners and that claims of sex gave men status. They described men as rationalizing rape to avoid thinking of themselves as rapists. They explained that men would not use condoms while high, or if putting a condom on gave a girl an opportunity to leave. They described hostile relations with women, who they believed usually lied about being raped. Participants believed men were not responsible for pregnancies because women used pregnancy to trick men into relationships.

Limitations of the study included the small sample, the inability to separate actual perpetrators from those merely at risk for dating violence, and the risk that focus group participants were trying to impress the researchers and each other.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; perpetration

Smith, P., & Welchans, S. (2000). Peer education: Does focusing on male responsibility change sexual assault attitudes? Violence Against Women, 6, 1255-1268.

The authors investigated a peer education program involving a 45-minute presentation emphasizing male responsibility in decreasing sexual assault. Trained high school students presented information on sexual assault risk reduction, rape culture, sexual assault law, how to help a friend who has been assaulted, and male responsibility in preventing sexual assault. Analysis of results showed decreased rape tolerant attitudes among high school students immediately postpresentation. Whereas the scores of female students showed less acceptance of rape myths and victim-blaming attitudes than males at both pretest and posttest, male student attitudes showed more improvement following the presentation than those of the females.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; myths/stereotypes

Smith, P., White, J., & Holland, J. (2003). A longitudinal perspective on dating violence among adolescent and college age women. American Journal of Public Health, 93, 1104-1109.

This article examines the covictimization of sexual and physical assault in dating relationships from high school through college. The authors performed a longitudinal study involving two cohorts of university women aged 18 to 19 years (N = 1,569). The women completed five surveys covering childhood, adolescence, and college victimization during four years at university. Measurements included sexual abuse, physical abuse, and domestic violence. Results indicate that women are at greatest risk for physical dating violence and covictimization during adolescence. Those women were at significant risk for revictimization in college, with either physical or sexual victimization increasing risk for the other type (i.e., covictimization). This trend continued throughout the college period. The article concludes with a recommendation for prevention/intervention programs and research to be implemented in high school in order to reduce later revictimization.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; college; risk

Tyler, K., Cauce, A., & Whitbeck, L. (2004). Family risk factors and prevalence of dissociative symptoms among homeless and runaway youth. Child Abuse & Neglect, 28, 355. [Posted August 2006.]

Key Points: Programs and interventions that detect and deal with dissociative symptoms in homeless youth can help them to cope with this mental health issue.

Abstract: This article describes an analysis of interviews with 328 homeless and runaway youth in Seattle, Washington. These interviews were conducted to examine family risk factors for dissociative symptoms among these youths. Dissociative symptoms are experienced as altered consciousness and memory, which results in a trance-like state or perception. Dissociative behavior is an impaired mental state, and can be detrimental to overall mental health.

This study reveals that dissociative symptoms are widespread among homeless youth. These symptoms are correlated with experiences of sexual abuse, physical abuse, and having a history of familial mental health problems. The study found no differences between genders.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; underserved populations

Tyler, K., Whitbeck, L., Hoyt, D., & Cauce, A. (2004). Risk factors for sexual victimization among male and female homeless and runaway youth. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 19, 503-520. [Posted August 2006.]

Key Points: Risk factors for sexual victimization differ between male and female homeless youth.

Abstract: Three-hundred and seventy-two homeless youth were interviewed, in order to examine the risk factors associated with being sexually victimized in this population. The study revealed that, for females, leaving home for the first time at an earlier age was associated with being victimized by an acquaintance or stranger. Engaging in deviant subsistence strategies, engaging in survival sex, and grooming (having a clean or pleasing physical appearance) were associated with being victimized by an aquaintance.

For males, victimization by strangers was associated with survival sex and grooming. Sexual orientation was associated with victimization by an aquaintance. Thirty-five percent of the total sample of homeless youth reported having been sexually victimized.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; prevalence; underserved populations

Vicary, J., Klingaman, L., & Harkness, W. (1995). Risk factors associated with date rape and sexual assault of adolescent girls. Journal of Adolescence, 18, 289-306.

This article discusses a research project which spanned four years, in which prevalence of and risk factors associated with unwanted sexual activity by dates/boyfriends was studied in a sample of rural, adolescent girls. Earlier age of menarche and sexual activity, as well as more sexually active same-sex friends, poor peer relationships, and poor emotional status were found to be significant predictors of sexual assault. Familial variables, such as living with both biological parents, church attendance, and quality of relationship between the subject and her family, were not found to be significant predictors of unwanted sexual activity.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; prevalence; risk

Webster, R. (2001). Symptoms and long-term outcomes for children who have been sexually assaulted. Psychology in the Schools, 38, 533-547.

The present article focuses on the definition, frequency, short- and long-term effects, and treatment of child sexual abuse. Data from the National Center of Child Abuse and Neglect (1996) indicates that 300,000 children are sexually abused or assaulted every year. With an increasing number of cases of child sexual assault, it is suggested that educators routinely encounter children victims of CSA. This article provides a review of issues and symptoms involved with CSA. The author stresses the need for school professionals to be more sensitive and aware of CSA in order to prevent children from further physical and psychological harm.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; treatment

Whitbeck, L., Chen, X., Hoyt, D., Tyler, K., & Johnson, K. (2004). Mental disorder, subsistence strategies, and victimization among gay, lesbian, and bisexual homeless and runaway adolescents. Journal of Sex Research, 41, 329-342. [Posted August 2006.]

Key Points: Gay, lesbian, and bisexual homeless youth are more likely to have been sexually and physically abused by caretakers or on the streets, to engage in risky survival strategies, and to meet the criteria for a mental disorder than heterosexual homeless youth.

Abstract: This study examined participation in deviant subsistence strategies, having been physically or sexually victimized while homeless, and lifetime prevalence of five mental disorders among self-identified heterosexual, gay, lesbian, and bisexual homeless adolescents in four Midwestern states. The mental disorders under consideration were conduct disorder, major depressive disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, alcohol abuse, and drug abuse.

The study revealed that gay, lesbian, and bisexual adolescents were more likely than heterosexuals to have been physically or sexually abused by caretakers, to engage in high-risk survival strategies (such as survival sex), to be physically and sexually victimized while homeless, and to meet the criteria for one of the mental disorders.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender; underserved populations

White, J., & Smith, P. (2004). Sexual assault perpetration and reperpetration: From adolescence to young adulthood. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 31, 182-202.

This five-year longitudinal study examined the relationship between childhood victimization and sexual coercion by following the participants in their adolescence through four years of college. The focus was to evaluate the relationship between the likelihood of sexually coercive behavior and childhood sexual abuse, physical abuse, and the experience of witnessing of domestic violence. Additionally, the pattern of sexual coercion as well as the pattern of reperpetration over time were also examined. Based on previous research, it was hypothesized that men who experienced childhood victimization would be more likely to exhibit sexually coercive behaviors throughout their lives when compared to men without such experiences. College males (N = 835) were recruited for this study and were given surveys throughout the five years. All three forms of childhood victimization (sexual abuse, physical abuse, and witnessing domestic violence) were found to increase the likelihood of sexual perpetration by 50% during the child’s adolescence. Adolescent perpetration was found to be a significant precursor of college-age perpetration. A relatively small subset was found to be responsible for a large percentage of female victimization. The researchers estimated that if all childhood victimization were eliminated, adolescent sexual coercion would decrease by 23%.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; perpetration; risk

Witkin, A., Milburn, N., Rotheram-Borus, M., Batterham, P., May, S., & Brooks, R. (2005). Finding homeless youth: Patterns based on geographical area and number of homeless episodes. Youth & Society, 37, 62-84. [Posted July 2006.]

Key Points: Current research on homeless youth may not be representative of all homeless youth in urban areas.

Abstract: " Cruise areas" are urban, inner-city areas characterized by high rate of drug use and sex work. When doing research on homeless youth, they the most common type of area for researchers to draw their sample from. This study looked a differences between youth found in cruise areas and non-cruise areas in Los Angeles County. They found that homeless youth in cruise areas were more likely than youth in non-cruise areas to be older, to have utilized social service services recently, to have been away from home longer, to have stayed in a shelter, and less likely to be in school.

Topics: Adolescent/high school, underserved populations

Wolak, J., Mitchell, K., & Finkelhor, D. (2007). Unwanted and wanted exposure to online pornography in a national sample of young Internet users. Pediatrics, 119, 247-257. [Posted January 2007.]

Key Points: A survey of Internet users aged 10-17 found that 42% had seen pornography online during the previous year, and 66% of those exposures were unwanted.

Abstract: The 2005 Youth Internet Safety Survey conducted phone interviews with 1,422 youth to measure exposure to online pornography during the previous year and the characteristics of those most at risk of being exposed.

Online pornography was defined as pictures on a website or as a downloaded image of naked people or people having sex. Youth were divided into three groups: those with wanted exposure (they wanted to see the image); unwanted exposure (they did not want to see the image); and those with both types of exposures. Youth were also asked about how they used the Internet. 

The only type of Internet use related to unwanted exposure was the use of file-sharing programs to download images. More than half of all boys 14-15 years old and two-thirds of 16-17 year olds had some exposure to online pornography. As boys aged, they were more likely to want exposure than not. Among girls, wanted exposure increased slightly with age but unwanted exposure strongly increased. Depressed youth were slightly more likely to be exposed to wanted and unwanted pornography.

Filtering, blocking, or monitoring software and law enforcement presentations reduced unwanted exposure to online pornography.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; media/internet

Young, A., Young, A. & Fullwood, H. (2007). Adolescent online victimization. The Prevention Researcher, 14, 8-9. [Posted April 2007.]

Key Points: As Internet use becomes more common, the number of youth exposed to online sexual solicitation, sexual material, and harassment (sexual or bullying) has increased.

Abstract: In a review of three recent studies, the authors estimated national prevalence of online victimization of youth at 13% for sexual solicitation; 34% for exposure to unwanted sexual material; and 9% for any type of harassment. The majority of incidents was not distressing and was not reported to adults.

Risk factors for online victimization included older age (youth 14-17 were at higher risk than younger children) and gender (girls were more likely to experience sexual solicitation or harassment than boys). In one study, 60% of youth gave out personal information in an online questionnaire or form. About 45% gave that information to someone they had met online.

Possible prevention strategies include frank discussion by adults about Internet victimization so that youth are better equipped to avoid it and deal with it if it happens. The authors recommended making youth aware of the possible consequences of sharing personal information online. Adults can also prepare youth to take action if they are victimized: removing themselves from the situation; changing screen name; and reporting the incident to prevent others from being victimized.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; harassment; media/ Internet; prevalence; prevention;risk